Wellbeing and Sense of Coherence Among Female Offenders and Non-Offenders: The Importance of Education
| Author | Marta Bodecka,Joanna Rajchert,Dorota Jasielska,Oliwia Macianowicz,Monica Smolen,Katarzyna Nawrocka,Anna Zajenkowska |
| Published date | 01 January 2021 |
| Date | 01 January 2021 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/0032885520978474 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
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Article
The Prison Journal
2021, Vol. 101(1) 41 –59
Wellbeing and Sense
© 2020 SAGE Publications
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https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885520978474
DOI: 10.1177/0032885520978474
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Female Offenders and
Non-Offenders: The
Importance of Education
Anna Zajenkowska1, Dorota Jasielska1,
Joanna Rajchert1, Katarzyna Nawrocka1,
Oliwia Macianowicz2, Monica Smolen1,
and Marta Bodecka1
Abstract
This article consists of two studies comparing female offenders’ and non-
offenders’ wellbeing and sense of coherence. Consistent with the hypotheses
in Study 1, the level of general wellbeing was lower among female inmates,
but the effect was due to differences in education. In Study 2, the sense of
coherence was measured. The results indicated that when education and
age are included in the analysis, the coherence levels did not differentiate
inmates from non-inmates.
Keywords
female offenders, wellbeing, sense of coherence, education
Introduction
Recognising at-risk individuals before they commit offences and properly
implementing rehabilitation processes once offenders commit a crime are
two important areas of research. Many studies focus on personality, which is
1Maria Grzegorzewska University, Warsaw, Poland
2Univesity of Warsaw, Poland
Corresponding Author:
Anna Zajenkowska, Maria Grzegorzewska University, Szczesliwicka 40, Warsaw 02-353, Poland.
Email: azajenkowska@aps.edu.pl
42
The Prison Journal 101(1)
an important factor in explaining aggressive behavior (Anderson & Bushman,
2002, Bauer & Clark, 1976; Black et al., 2010; Blagov et al., 2011; Boccaccini
et al., 2010). In the context of crossing the line of socially acceptable aggres-
sive behavior and committing a crime, social and environmental factors seem
to be highly relevant (Gendreau et al., 1996). Difficulties in childhood, harsh
discipline, and parental imprisonment are all factors predicting potential
crime commitment, but also are important for psychological wellbeing or its
deficits (Farrington, 1998; Farrington et al., 2001). Since the latter factors
involve the quality of the social environment, wellbeing appears to be an
important aspect of efficient resocialization. Wellbeing relates to greater par-
ticipation in correctional programs, as one example (Wooldredge, 1999), and
inmate mental health is also closely linked to suicide attempts, interpersonal
conflict, and the broader social order of the jail (Lindquist, 2000).
Effective offender rehabilitation is related to the responsivity principle,
which involves matching the style and mode of intervention to the offender’s
learning style and abilities (Andrews et al., 1990). Hence, it seems particu-
larly important to investigate individual differences in personality and abili-
ties, as well as the psychological health and wellbeing of offenders (Hepper
et al., 2014; Ward et al., 2007; Wooldredge, 1999).
Researchers stress that when addressing and analyzing aggressive behav-
ior in a sample of offenders, it is important not to focus solely on male sub-
jects (Salekin et al., 1998; Zajenkowska & Rajchert, 2020). The emphasis on
male participants might stem from the fact that women commit fewer crimes.
Further, in comparison to men who are more frequently convicted for violent
crimes, the majority of the women are convicted for non-violent offences
(Bloom & Covington, 1998; Covington, 2002; Müller-Fabian, 2015; Quaker
Council for European Affairs, 2007). Nonetheless, at the same time, there has
been an increase in the number of female inmates at the end of the twentieth
century, and at a much faster rate compared to males (Austin et al., 1993;
Snell & Morton, 1994). With this growth in women offender populations,
new topics in research have emerged; for example, studying the impact of
victimization in the lives of women in prison (DeHart, 2008). Additionally,
justice systems have had to address new problems related to female inmates—
that women are more likely to become addicted to drugs than men, and that
they experience physical and sexual violence at higher rates than men. As a
result, imprisoned women are more often the victims of violence and have
experienced various forms of social exclusion, mental disorders, and other
health problems (Cruells & Igareda, 2005; James & Glaze, 2006).
Moreover, with higher percentages of women in correctional systems,
there is also the issue of childcare (Morash et al., 1998), as the majority of
female offenders are mothers (Kolarczyk et al., 1984; Polish Ministry of
Zajenkowska et al.
43
Justice, 1994). Given that the imprisonment of parents is a traumatic event
related to parent-child attachment and its strong link to future criminal behav-
ior in the children, special care should be taken with female offenders. Since
the mental health of mothers affects the psychological condition of the child,
as well as the formation of social relationships (Ainsworth, 1989), the well-
being of imprisoned women is a high social priority.
All abovementioned factors have effects on the psychosocial functioning
of female inmates and relate negatively to their psychological wellbeing
(Ryff, 2017). It is a well-known fact that individuals with a lower socio-
economic status characterised by low educational attainment, occupational
status, and income are at an increased risk for a variety of health and mental
health problems (Adler & Ostrove, 1999; Marmot, 2005; Ryff, 2017).
Therefore, many female inmates have low educational levels, having experi-
enced precarious work conditions and an unstable and low-wage job history
(Cruells & Igareda, 2005).
Study 1
Ward et al. (2007) hypothesized that individuals commit criminal offences
because they lack the ability to realize their needs in socially acceptable
ways. They stress the importance of human agency and personal identity in
the process of rehabilitating inmates, because such primary goods are impor-
tant factors in increasing psychological wellbeing (Kekes, 1989; Ward &
Stewart, 2003). Ryff and Keyes (1995, p.720) described elements of positive
psychological functioning (wellbeing) that embrace “positive evaluations of
oneself and one’s past life (Self-Acceptance), a sense of continued growth
and development as a person (Personal Growth), the belief that one’s life is
purposeful and meaningful (Purpose in Life), the possession of quality rela-
tions with others (Positive Relations with Others), the capacity to manage
effectively one’s life and surrounding world (Environmental Mastery).”
Thus, greater wellbeing is related to higher and less fragile self-esteem
(Paradise & Kernis, 2002). All of these dimensions constitute a model of
wellbeing, which is essential for flourishing, and the validity of which has
been confirmed in numerous studies (Ryff, 2017).
For this study and based on existing literature, it was predicted that the
level of wellbeing would be lower in female inmates compared to female non-
inmates. A major factor is that, in general, inmates in Poland belong to a social
group with lower education, with a small percentage attaining higher educa-
tion and the majority completing only basic education (Boruc, 2014). As edu-
cational attainment is related to higher levels of wellbeing (Ryff, 2017), it was
44
The Prison Journal 101(1)
hypothesized that that the difference in wellbeing between inmates and non-
inmates could be related to one’s level of education.
Study 1: Method
Participants
The data came from two different samples, one drawn from the female inmate
population and one from the general population. The questionnaires were
offered to all female inmates in one of Warsaw’s prisons. About 100 women
accepted the distributed questionnaires; there was an 85% return rate, but due
to missing data, only 80 were included in the analysis. The respondents had
been convicted of various crimes, and sentences were noted according to
their self-reports. Seven reported crimes related to the use of aggression (five
homicide; one accessory to murder; one homicidal battery), six committed
robbery, and the others acknowledged various non-aggressive crimes, such as
stealing, possession of drugs, giving birth when drunk, extortion, not paying
fines, fraud or forgery. Twelve women did not report the reason of their con-
viction. Their sentence range was between two months and 21 years in the
penitentiary, and most were sentenced for 2 (20%) or 3 (10%) years (M = 5.11,
SD = 4.63). Seven women did not report the length of their sentence. Those
who were convicted for the first time constituted the largest group (41%), and
fewer were convicted for the second time (12%). Others admitted having
served multiple sentences before (up to 35 prior sentences), and four did not
provide information about their previous sentences. On average, the women
had served more than three sentences before the current incarceration
(M = 3.86, SD = 5.15). Seven declared that they had first been sentenced
before reaching 18 years of age, but according to Polish law, if this were the
case, they could only have been detained in a juvenile correction facility.
Including those answers, the mean age of the first detention was 29 years
(SD = 12.28); three women did not provide this information.
For the comparison group, data from 104 women were collected. We tried
to match subjects in the...
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