Participatory Niches for Emergent Citizenship in Early Adolescence: An International Perspective

• Author: Jo-Ann Amadeo,Judith Torney-Purta
• DOI: 10.1177/0002716210384220
• Published date: 01 January 2011
• Date: 01 January 2011
• Subject Matter: Articles

Thisarticleisbasedontheassumptionthattherightto
voteinnationalelectionsisnotanessentialdimension
of citizenship for early adolescents as long as adoles-
cents’ other competencies and attitudes are nurtured
in their everyday settings. The article addresses the
issueofchildrenorearlyadolescentsandtheirpolitical
andcivicparticipationfromthreeperspectives.First,it
examineshowhumanrightsandactionincommunity
settingshavebeenviewedacrosstheseveraldecadesin
which political socialization research has been con-
ducted.Theideaofemergentparticipatorycitizenship
Participatory for young adolescents is introduced. Second, the
authors examine findings from survey research to
Nichesfor
determinewhetherthesocializationanddevelopmen-
tal experiences of the majority of early adolescents
entering the twenty-first century have resulted in
Emergent
attitudesandskillsappropriatetobeingfullcitizens.
Thethirdsectionexaminesstudiesusingqualitative
Citizenshipin methodologies—observationsandinterviews—toshow
howthespacesforadolescentstoexerciseparticipatory
Early
anddeliberativecapabilitiescanbeenhanced.
Keywords: developmentalniche;participatoryrights;
Adolescence:
adolescents;deliberativecapacity;Conven-
tion on the Rights of the Child; human
An
rightseducation;politicalsocialization;IEA
CivicEducationStudy
International
Perspective
TheUnitedNations(UN),almostsinceits
inception,hashadamajorroleindefining,
promoting,andassistingintheimplementation
ofhumanrightsforindividualsregardlessofage.
By
JUDITHTORNEY-PURTA
and
Judith Torney-Purta is a professor of human develop-
ment at the University of Maryland, College Park. The
JO-ANNAMADEO
international IEA Civic Education Study, which she
led, and her research with young people aged 7 to 21
have covered political socialization and human rights
attitudes from the perspective of a developmental social
psychologist.
Jo-Ann Amadeo is an educational researcher teaching
in the Department of Human Development, University
of Maryland. She has conducted research as part of the
IEA Civic Education Study since 1994, including
responsibility for the study of upper secondary stu-
dents; she has evaluated experiential civic education
programs in Washington, D.C.
DOI:10.1177/0002716210384220
180
ANNALS,AAPSS,633,January2011

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PARTICIPATORYNICHESFOREMERGENTCITIZENSHIPINEARLYADOLESCENCE
181
A recent history emphasizes that the organization operates not only directly
throughitsownofficialsandagenciesbutdependsontheactionsofitsmember
governments, on a broad network of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
andonthepublic(andthosewhoinformthepublic,fromtraditionaljournalists
toindividualsoperatinginelectronicspaces).ThreekeyissuesinwhichtheUN
has made a difference are human rights implementation, women’s empower-
ment,andanintegratedapproachtothedevelopmentofhumanpotential(Jolley,
Emmerij,andWeiss2009).
TheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)isthekeyinstrument
mobilizing support for the idea that children have rights to be protected and
nurturedandrightstoparticipateindecisionsabouttheirlives.Thosewhowrite
abouttheCRCseetheserightsasexistinginasocialcontextandhavearealistic
view of impediments to their widespread implementation or protection (Ruck
andHorn2008).Thereisconsiderabledebateaboutwhatitmeansforchildren
toexerciseparticipationrightsascitizensandwhetherthisshouldincludethe
righttovoteinelectionslocallyornationally.Tomountacampaigntolowerthe
voting age would require, among other things, making optimistic judgments
abouttheabilityofeducationalsystems(orothersocializingagents)toprepare
youngpeopleforelectoralparticipation.Furthermore,avarietyofpoliticaland
bureaucratic obstacles would stand in the way of any plan to lower the age at
whichindividualsacquiretherighttovote.Applaudingthespiritbehindpropos-
alssuchasthis,weneverthelessarguethatinternationalinstitutions,countries,
andindividualsshouldinsteaddevotetheirresourcestoensuringthatearlyado-
lescentsacrosstheworldarelearningdailytoexpresstheirviewsanddeliberate
aboutcoursesofactioninmattersthatconcernthemandacquiringavarietyof
citizenshipskillsanddispositionsnotdependentontherighttovote.Inshort,we
argueforpromoting“emergentparticipatorycitizenship”duringtheadolescent
years.Directingseriousattentiontoenhancingthepoliticallyandcivicallyrele-
vantnichesthatthosebetweenages10and18occupyintheireverydaylives,in
ourview,hasgreaterpotentialforpositiveeffectsthandoesacampaigntolower
thevotingageworldwide.
Weproposeatheoreticalframeworknewtothisarea,whichusesasociocul-
tural approach to developmental psychology (Gauvain and Parke 2010; Rogoff
1995).Foratleast20yearstherehasbeenamovetowardviewingsocializationin
allareasassociallyconstructed(involvinganinterplaybetweendeep-seatedsocial
andculturalpracticesandinstitutions),asreciprocalandbidirectional(notflow-
ingonlyfromparenttochildorteachertostudent),andasdynamic(changeable
in response to events in a particular time period). For example, Haste and
Torney-Purta(1992)highlightedindividualandsocialconstructioninthedevel-
opmentofpoliticalunderstanding.Thesocioculturalframeworkisbroadenough
toencompassothertheoreticalconceptssuchasBandura’sideasaboutobserva-
tionallearningorcollectiveefficacy(Bandura1999).
Recently Gauvain and Parke (2010) dealt in depth with the sociocultural
approachtosocialization,pointingoutthatindividualslivetheireverydaylivesin

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182
THEANNALSOFTHEAMERICANACADEMY
FIGURE1
Aspects of the Developmental Niche for Emergent Participatory Citizenship
Individual
Daily Life
Historically
Adults’ Beliefs
Settings: Family,
Rooted Customs
and Expectations
School, Peers,
and Beliefs: Role
The child in
about Child as
Activities,
of Child in
middle
Emergent
Social Media
Society
childhood and
Citizen
early
adolescence is
characterized by
“emergent
participatory
Child and
Late Adolescent
citizenship”
Young Child
Adolescent
and Young
Adult
Rights to
Emergent
Full
Protection
Participatory
Citizenship
Citizenship
Potential
whataredefinedasdevelopmentalniches.TheseauthorscreditBeatriceWhiting,
ananthropologistdeeplyinvolvedinthecross-culturalstudyofchildren,asone
ofthefirsttodescribehowculturescreatedifferentmicroandmacrosettingsin
whichchildrendevelopandtodescribeparents’rolesasorganizersoftheseset-
tings(WhitingandWhiting1975).SuperandHarkness(1986,1999)pointedto
threedimensionsofthedevelopmentalnichesinwhichindividualchildrenare
embedded(seeFigure1).Firstisthephysicalandsocialsettinginwhichthechild
liveshisorherdailylife.Secondaretheculturallyregulatedcustomsofchildcare
and child rearing (many rooted in historical circumstances or ecological
demands).Thirdarethebeliefsofcaretakersaboutthenatureofchildrenand
theirdevelopmentalprocesses,called“ethnotheories”(SuperandHarkness1999;
Harknessetal.2007).
Some of the characteristics of the niche are unique to the individual child
(shapedbygender,age,ortemperament)andtoaparticularfamily(anabsent
parentorkinlivingnearby);othercharacteristicsmaybesharedwithinthelocal
community (limited economic resources or the circumstances of a particular
ethnicgroup);stillothersaredefinedbypoliticalandsocialinstitutions(require-
mentsforcompulsoryschoolattendanceorlimitationsonspeakingopenlyabout
politics).Parentsattempttoorganizetheirchildren’snichesinlinewiththehis-
toryofthegroupswithwhichtheyidentify;theirownexperiencesorinclinations;
andtheavailableeconomic,educational,andsocialresources.Activitiesthattake
placeregularlywithindevelopmentalnichesfuelsocialization.Sociallyaccept-
ablepractices,rituals,androutinesareenmeshedintheprocessbywhichyoung

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PARTICIPATORYNICHESFOREMERGENTCITIZENSHIPINEARLYADOLESCENCE
183
peoplearesocializedineveryareaoflife,includingtheirexerciseofparticipatory
rights,alsocalledtheirpoliticalsocialization.
Theexpectationsthatadultsholdforyoungpeopleareconstructedaccording
towhatparentsoreducatorsbelieveyoungpeoplewillneedtoknowwhenthey
aremature(althoughparentsareneverperfectprognosticatorsofthefuturesin
whichtheirchildrenwillbeadults).Theseexpectationsarealsoage-graded,typi-
callyusingcommoncognitiveandsocialcapacities.Nooneexpectsa4-year-oldto
beafluentreader,butlackofprogresstowardliteracyafewyearslaterwouldbe
ofconcern.Fewwouldgivemuchcredencetoa6-year-old’sopinionsonapolitical
issue, but the opinions of an 11-year-old might be the topic for conversation
withinthefamily.Mostpsychologicalresearchcitedaboutpoliticalawareness,for
example,findsanincreaseintheabilitytolookatseveralsidesofasocialproblem,
to consider others’ opinions, and to make an argument sometime between the
agesof10and14formanychildren(GallatinandAdelson1970).Thisandother
evidencehasledsometoargueforloweringthevotingage.Wearguethatthisis
notthebestactiontoenhancethematurationofparticipatoryrights.
In summary, young people; adults; other children with whom young people
interactonaproximalbasis;aswellasmoredistantsocial,economic,andeduca-
tionalinstitutionscoconstructthenichesinwhichyoungpeopledevelop.Niches
inwhichchildrendevelopmayberichinexperiencesrelevanttotheexerciseof
participatoryrightsor“voice.”Orchildrenmaybeexpectedtoconformtothe
beliefsofadults,withoutmuchchancetoengageinsocialpracticesallowingthem
toexploreordeliberateabouttheiropinions(orhaveanimpactonthethinking
ofothers).
Thisarticleprovidesevidencethatenhancingopportunitiesfortheexerciseof
participatoryrightswithinthedevelopmentalnichesofyoungpeopleisaworth-
whiledirectionforaction.Ourargumentsregardingchildrenandparticipatory
rightshavethreeparts.First,welookathowpoliticalactionapartfromelections
andineverydaycommun...