Exploring Discrimination on the Basis of International Experience: The Colonial Mindset Bias in the Context Of Pakistan

• Date: 01 January 2018
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21824
• Published date: 01 January 2018

Human Resource Management, January–February 2018, Vol. 57, No. 1. Pp. 211–233

© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21824

Correspondence to: Ayesha Bano, Assistant Professor, FAST School of Management, National University of

Computer and Emerging Sciences, A. K. Brohi Road, H-11/4, Islamabad, Pakistan, Phone: 00 92 333 5171116,

E-mail: ayesha.bano@nu.edu.pk.

EXPLORING DISCRIMINATION

ON THE BASIS OF INTERNATIONAL

EXPERIENCE: THE COLONIAL

MINDSET BIAS IN THE CONTEXT

OF PAKISTAN

AYESHA BANO AND SADIA NADEEM

Discrimination in the labor market has historically been associated with gender,

race, ethnicity, and age. This article introduces another basis of discrimination—

international experience—which may exist in developing countries because of

a colonial mindset. The research is an exploratory study, based on an analysis

of in-depth semistructured interviews with 8 HR managers, 19 employees with

international experience, and 24 employees without international experience (N

= 51) working in the oil and gas and telecom sectors of Pakistan. Results indicate

some initial evidence of a bias, and hence discrimination during recruitment for

entry-level positions. Findings also indicate that international experience may

contribute to enhanced employment opportunities, career progress, and higher

compensation at senior-level leadership positions, leaving those without such

experience at a disadvantage. While in some cases international experience

may be a genuine occupational requirement (GOR), further research is needed

to identify whether this is in fact a GOR for senior level positions in all types of

organizations or indirect discrimination under the guise of GOR. Recommenda-

tions for HR managers and organizational leaders are also set out, which can

be applied in practice to foster equality of opportunity in the workplace. ©2017

Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Keywords: compensation and benefi ts, discrimination, international HRM,

perception, recruitment, selection

The question of why workers who have the

same ability receive unequal treatment,

particularly in the context of hiring,

remuneration, and promotion decisions

has long been of interest to management

scholars (Arrow, 1973a; Gutek, Cohen, & Tsui,

1996; Levitin, Quinn, & Staines, 1971; Maume,

1999; Mulcahy & Linehan, 2014; Ryan & Haslam,

2007; Williams, 1992). Studies of discrimination

in the workplace, which appears in the form of

unequal pay and hindrance in progress to senior-

level positions, have typically focused on gender

212 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2018

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

A form of

discrimination

is presumed to

exist because of a

“colonial mindset

bias,” whereby

individuals with

international

exposure, particularly

in those developing

countries that were

Western colonies

in the 19th and

20th century, are

perceived to be better

than those without

such experience,

regardless of

competencies.

sectors of Pakistan, who returned to their coun-

try of origin after attaining international experi-

ence. International experience refers to different

activities, such as international study, volunteer

work, internships, and personal travel combined

with casual employment (Crossman & Clark,

2009). These experiences may be organization ini-

tiated (Cappellen & Janssens, 2010; Dickmann &

Doherty, 2008; Mayerhofer, Schmidt, Hartmann,

& Bendl, 2011) or self-initiated (Altman & Baruch,

2012; Crowley-Henry, 2012; Froese & Peltokorpi,

2013; Jokinen, Brewster, & Suutari, 2008; Suutari

& Brewster, 2001). In our study, international

experience refers to international education,

international work experience, or international

trainings.

We chose the oil and gas and telecom sectors

as they are significant contributors to economic

development and have attracted a substantial

amount of foreign direct investment in recent

years (Ministry of Finance, 2015), leading to

growth within these sectors. This has led to an

increase in the number of individuals employed

within them, both with and without international

experience. The context of Pakistan is appropriate

for our study, as Pakistan is a developing coun-

try that was under British colonial rule for over

a hundred years. It thus offers a rich ground for

studying whether a bias in employment outcomes

exists in favor of those who have been exposed

to Western societies. Given the colonial back-

ground, we assert that slavery may still exist at the

mental level, manifesting into a rejection of local

experience in exchange for a “superior” Western

exposure. The negative connotation attached to

the term developing countries in the developing-

developed nomenclature may add to the positive

image of developed countries and hence indirectly

support and reinforce favorable treatment of those

who have been exposed to “developed” countries.

Applying the general criteria of discrimi-

nation (Gutek et al., 1996; International Labor

Office [ILO], 2007) to the developing-developed

paradigm, we suggest that if the favorable treat-

ment is based on a personal characteristic of the

individual—international exposure—rather than

on abilities or work performance, it may result

in discrimination against those who do not have

such exposure. Other sources of discrimination

have been said to manifest as access discrimina-

tion or treatment discrimination (Levitin et al.,

1971), a concept that can apply to discrimination

on the basis of international exposure as well. For

instance, rejecting applicants without interna-

tional experience, offering lower starting salaries,

and failing to recruit them for certain positions

that require a higher level of skills would qualify

(Belliveau, 2012; Elvira & Graham, 2002; Hoobler,

Wayne, & Lemmon, 2009; Maume, 1999; Phillips,

2005) or race (Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003;

Carton & Rosette, 2011; Cook & Glass, 2013; Edo,

Jacquemet, & Yannelis, 2013; Elliott & Smith,

2001). Some scholars have also explored discrimi-

nation in the workplace because of age (Krings,

Sczesny, & Kluge, 2011; Redman & Snape, 2006)

and more recently on the basis of sexual orienta-

tion (Ozturk & Rumens, 2014; Priola, Lasio, De

Simone, & Serri, 2014).

While previous studies have focused on gen-

der, race, age, and sexual orientation, this article

contributes to the body of knowl-

edge on inequality in the work-

place by exploring a new source

of discrimination, namely, “inter-

national experience.” Such a form

of discrimination is presumed to

exist because of a “colonial mind-

set bias,” whereby individuals with

international exposure, particularly

in those developing countries that

were Western colonies in the 19th

and 20th century, are perceived to be

better than those without such expe-

rience, regardless of competencies.

Current literature on interna-

tional HRM indicates that prefer-

ence for international experience is

a necessary requirement for today’s

globalized economy and does not

perceive it as “discrimination.”

With a rise in global trade and more

companies doing business in inter-

national markets, it is perceived

that individuals with international

expertise can create a competitive

advantage for themselves and the

organizations that employ them

(Brown, 2008; Carpenter, Sanders,

& Gregersen, 2000; Daily, Certo, &

Dalton, 2000). However, the existing

literature focuses on the experiences

of individuals from developed coun-

tries such as New Zealand, Australia,

Finland, and the United Kingdom

(Al Ariss & Ozbilgin, 2010; Doherty,

Richardson, & Thorn, 2013). Little is known about

the experiences of expatriates from developing

countries who return to their home country after

spending time abroad and the advantages such an

experience brings to them or the companies that

employ them.

This article addresses this research gap by focus-

ing on the experiences of individuals of Pakistani

origin, working in the oil and gas and telecom