Veritable Measure of Leadership Effectiveness: New Perspectives.

• Author: Khan, Hamid

INTRODUCTION

Much qualitative research on leadership and empirical research has been conducted, and many meta-analyses have concluded that transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership are the three components of the full range leadership model (FRLM) examining transformational, transactional and passive avoidant leadership. Although passive avoidant leadership is a characteristic of leadership behavior, much focus has not been paid on researching it although it is used by most kind and empathetic leaders of repute. And excellent leaders almost always strategically bank upon passive avoidant leadership to calm the nerves in conflict, or to delay some actions appropriately without engaging in all out conflict.

In this paper, the full range leadership model (FRLM) has been studied among university professors to identify their transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and passive avoidant leadership. In a survey conducted with American university professors, 355 professors responded to, and 302 data points were used to analyze 100 questions dealing with propensity of behaviors under given situations.

The results indicate that although transformational and transactional leadership are used in the university environment, some supremely successful professors and administrators do use passive avoidant leadership appropriately, in order to "decide on questions that are not now pertinent, not deciding prematurely, not deciding those things that cannot be made effective, and not deciding those things that others should make."

This research tries to make an integration of the four aspects of effective decision making and prescribes an appropriate blend of transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and passive avoidant leadership for recruiting cooperation as the most creative activity. Presentation will show to the audience that it takes a long time and patience to practice appropriately the veritable measure of leadership effectiveness.

EVOLUTION OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THOUGHTS

It all starts with a fervent prayer for seeking the truth for leading and for making effective decisions:

"My Lord! enable me to be grateful for Your favor which You have bestowed upon me and upon my parents, and to do righteous deeds which You approve of. And admit me by Your Mercy into the ranks of Your righteous servants." [Qura'n, 27:19]

And it ends in sincere imitation for practice of leadership:

I was influenced by the ideal influences and attributes, and ideal influences and behaviors of Prophet Muhammad [the Prophet of Islam, peace be unto him], "The philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational beliefs without images; the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire!--that is Muhammad! As regards all standards by which human greatness may be measured, we may well ask, is there any man greater than he?"-Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869)

Introduction to Exceptionalism: The American Exceptionalisni

Effective leaders are transformational leaders. University professors should be transformational too, to leave a legacy and impact on student learning outcomes. Meta-analyses have shown that Transformational Leadership is positively related to Student Learning and Satisfaction. Yet there is paucity of research in Professors' Competitiveness and Effectiveness, Gap between Performance and Potential. Emerging constructs by Luthans on (Trait like States called) Positive Organizational Behavior/ Psychological Capital of (Hope, Optimism, Resilience and Self Efficacy) and by Avolio on affective nature of Psychological Ownership (akin to OCEAN personality traits), have been used to demonstrate Effective Leadership and Outcomes (Performance and Satisfaction). Lately, some studies have also found that high score on Psychological Capital is related to Leadership Outcomes (employee Performance and Job Satisfaction). And some studies have found that high score on Psychological Ownership is also related to Leadership Outcomes (employee Trust and Engagement (Organizational Citizenship Behavior). In the university setting, much of the work that professors do encompasses aspects of Psychological Capital (Hope, Optimism, resilience, and Self-Efficacy-a) as well as their Psychological Ownership (Territoriality, Ease of belonging, Accountability, Self-Efficacy-b, and Relational Identity). While each variable--A professor's Psychological Capital and Psychological Ownership may predict Professors' leadership style, there is a paucity of research that addresses which of these nine variables are the strongest predictors of leadership style (Transformational, Transactional and Passive Avoidant). No studies have been found that simultaneously studied professors' self-rated Psychological Capital, Psychological Ownership, (as independent variables) and their impact on leadership style (Transformational, Transactional or Passive Avoidant Leadership) in the university setting. So, the purpose of the research is to investigate if PsyCap and PsyGown may be a good measure of prediction for Leadership.

Chester Barnard's Acceptance Theory of Leadership

The development of psychological capital and psychological ownership happened almost after 70 years of pioneering work of Chester Barnard who spoke about leadership and leader effectiveness and followership with extreme clarity in leadership acceptance theory of authority (Barnard,1938). The popular theory of authority was known as "acceptance theory of authority," which the leader uses in various forms, but Barnard asserted that it must be accepted by those who are the followers. The acceptance was the key phrase in his seminal theory of acceptance of authority.

Chester Barnard's (1938, 1976) acceptance theory of authority and leadership had two primary foci--one on recruiting cooperation of followers and the other managing that cooperation, once it was achieved. For the former (recruiting cooperation of followers) he said, "Cooperation, not leadership, is the creative process;" and for continuously maintaining that cooperation from followers he added, "...but leadership is the indispensable fulminator of its forces."

Barnard promulgated this theory with the use of communication and recruiting cooperation from followers as a major force in leader's effectiveness with his four key principles which are enunciated below:

* At the time of communication, the leader is completely clear in his or her message-meaning is that there is no ambiguity in the communication. This can be stated as that sort of communication where the follower finds no ambiguity and finds it e.g. to follow or conform to. In this instance a small example will suffice for the leadership of a professor. Take for instance the communication through a standard syllabus. The syllabus as a stated form of contract must have complete clarity in such a manner that nothing will be ambiguous with respect to time and its modus operandi in so far as acceptance offered by the student is concerned. This syllabus rests as an instrument of complete clarity on which the leader and follower consent to operate.

* At the time of communication, the message should be to the best interest of the subordinate, or the follower, or the student. This is a particular interest for the student that this communication should be inherently beneficial for the student for teaching effectiveness of the professor as a leader.

* At the time of communication, the followers should be in conformance with the organizational interest. It is important to understand that individuals subscribe to voluntarily to the organizational interest. When a group of people are governed or managed, the focus is on ultimate discipline of concurrence by the whole group. This is akin to cadets in the military where everyone in the platoon instantaneously and subconsciously relates to everyone and the motion passes when individuals ratify the communication directed toward them. That is the reason why Chester Barnard alleged that one "Democratic president had forgotten that the greatest of democracy is the military," then he explained that when the simple order is given, it passes through hundreds of cadets in the ranks and instant acceptance is given by the whole group. But, he argued, that the whole military understands that the process was carried because it was not against the organizational interest of the group.

* Lastly, what is very important here is that Chester Barnard called upon the biological limitations of individuals. This biological limitation is a very important concept in understanding leadership and followership because leadership does not depend on the leader and followership depends upon acceptance of leader. The concept of biological limitation is mental, psychological, physical, emotional, and attitudinal. Simply stated, a little impossibility is a total impossibility for the follower to carry out. To compare with physical science, this is the state before the yield point of a material. The whole sense of acceptance depends on whether the person's capability has been violated. Examples are replete in which this last item of biological limitation becomes crucial in accepting leader's communication as valid or legitimate.

The above was the summary of Barnard's philosophy of acceptance theory of authority or leadership theory which is still popular for its effectiveness, popular and applied. There are many derivatives of Barnard's theory of authority and leadership. Recent literature on positive organizational behavior by Luthans and Avolio (2004), using leadership in the organizational context have improved or refined Barnard's acceptance theory of authority and leadership. Examining hope optimism and resilience and self-efficacy (horse) embedded in (cognitive) psychological capital; and territoriality, ease of belongingness, accountability, self-efficacy, and relational...