Understanding the Gender Gap in Domestic Terrorism Through Criminal Participation

• DOI: 10.1177/0887403413478016
• Date: 01 September 2014
• Author: David A. Makin,Season Hoard
• Published date: 01 September 2014
• Subject Matter: Articles

Criminal Justice Policy Review

2014, Vol. 25(5) 531 –552

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DOI: 10.1177/0887403413478016

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Article

Understanding the

Gender Gap in Domestic

Terrorism Through Criminal

Participation

David A. Makin1 and Season Hoard1

Abstract

This research examines criminal participation of women within domestic terrorism

while testing two beliefs. Those beliefs focus on the ruthlessness and lethality of

female terrorists as described by Laqueur and the belief that women are more likely

to be found within a particular group type (left wing). These two beliefs form the basis

of U.S. domestic terrorism policy and need to be evaluated empirically to understand

whether and how current terrorism policy needs to be reconsidered in order to

address the realities of women’s involvement in domestic terrorism. To describe

female criminal participation and to test these beliefs, this research uses the American

Terrorism Study (ATS), which aggregates all terrorism investigations conducted by

the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) between 1980 and 2002.

Keywords

gender, domestic terrorism, American Terrorism Study, criminal participation,

terrorism investigations

Over the past three decades, knowledge on terrorism has grown rapidly in response to

the global war against terrorism, which has led to a corresponding increase in funding,

development of new research centers, and an increase in terrorism publications (Reid

& Chen, 2006). However, the growth of this field has primarily focused on a narrow

cross-section of disciplines focusing on political science, international studies, and

history (Reid & Chen, 2006). These perspectives have dominated the discussion on

1Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

Corresponding Author:

David A. Makin, Washington State University, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Pullman,

WA 99163, USA.

Email: dmakin@wsu.edu

478016CJP25510.1177/0887403413478016Criminal Justice Policy ReviewMakin and Hoard

research-article2013

532 Criminal Justice Policy Review 25(5)

terrorism, which has limited the involvement of other disciplines in growing the

knowledge on this behavior (Silke, 2001).

While the field of terrorism studies has grown, the knowledge within one particular

aspect of this behavior has been limited. The knowledge on female participation within

terrorism has overly focused on describing the media portrayal, pathways into the

group, or the psychology of those participants. While research examining male

involvement has focused on these same areas, the analysis of female participation has

been severely limited and examined through a bifurcated lens (Talbot, 2001). Much of

the representation of female terrorists has been fundamentally flawed and skewed to

present a gendered stereotype that portrays women as “extreme feminists” or love-

struck girls (Talbot, 2001). Alternatively, women are portrayed as taking on male-

associated traits (violence and aggression) to accomplish acts, which results in

portraying them and researching them as their male equivalents (Talbot, 2001). Most

powerful is this quote by Talbot on the perspective of female involvement within

terrorism:

If the feminine is the focus, her complicity is minimized through a patronizing assumption

of lack of intelligence or a naiveté about her actions. If the masculine is maximized, the

result is a diminution of the connection between feminine and terror. Either way, the notion

of a woman as a terrorist is discarded; she is either a woman or a terrorist. (p. 170)

The focus on female terrorists through this bifurcated lens has resulted in numerous

beliefs surrounding female involvement in terrorism. The intent of this article is not to

test all of these beliefs but rather highlight two beliefs, which have had considerable

influence on U.S. domestic terrorism policy and determine whether they hold true at a

criminal participation level. This research will test whether women are in fact more

ruthless (Laqueur, 1999), a belief that maximizes the masculine, and if there is a clear

preference in-group type (right wing vs. left wing) from a criminal participation per-

spective (Eager, 2008; Martin, 2008). To test the accuracy of these beliefs, this research

is interested in examining female participation within domestic terrorism by analyzing

the crimes perpetrated and the involvement of women within right-wing and left-wing

groups. By examining female participation within domestic terrorism through a focus

on documented criminal activity, this study seeks to fill an important gap in terrorism

literature by empirically testing the beliefs surrounding female involvement in terror-

ism. These beliefs, which are often firmly rooted in gendered stereotypes, need to be

empirically evaluated in order to increase our knowledge and understanding of women

involved in terrorism and aid the development of U.S. terrorism policy that can ade-

quately address women’s involvement in domestic terrorism.

The volumes of research within terrorism are astounding. Research mapping con-

temporary terrorism studies has found more than 7,590 terrorism-related articles (Reid

& Chen, 2006). However, if one were to examine within that 7,590 articles, a dispro-

portionate amount would focus on the activities of men and only devote cursory atten-

tion the role of women. The reality is that female involvement in terrorism has received

substantially less attention than male involvement, especially in U.S.-focused policy