The Roles of Family, Community, and Services in the Prevention of Illicit Drug Use: Findings From a Sample of Released Prisoners

• Published date: 01 April 2021
• Author: Christy A. Visher,Lin Liu
• DOI: 10.1177/0022042620984770
• Date: 01 April 2021
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042620984770

Journal of Drug Issues

2021, Vol. 51(2) 354 –371

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0022042620984770

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Article

The Roles of Family, Community,

and Services in the Prevention of

Illicit Drug Use: Findings From a

Sample of Released Prisoners

Lin Liu1 and Christy A. Visher2

Abstract

Studies show that the deterioration of family bonds and financial difficulty are barriers to a

successful reintegration after incarceration. However, how family, community, and correction

agencies simultaneously affect individuals’ illicit drug use during reentry is rarely examined. This

study draws insights from the systemic model of social disorganization and examines the joint

effects of private, parochial, and public levels of social control on post-release drug use. We

used a longitudinal data set that captured family relationships, community cohesiveness, and

reentry program participation of released prisoners. Findings provide empirical support for

the application of the systemic model of social disorganization on illicit drug during reentry.

The various levels of social control defined by this theory were found to exhibit significant and

inhibitory effects on individuals’ drug use after release. This study advances our understanding

of individuals’ reentry outcomes by highlighting the joint influence of family, community, and

correction agencies. Policy implications for addressing post-release drug use are presented.

Keywords

reentry, drug use, the systemic model of social disorganization, family bonds, community

cohesion, reentry programs

Introduction

Reentry is a stage both exciting and challenging for released prisoners. On one hand, they will no

longer adhere to a life routine embedded in a prison regime; there will be a life with more ability

to make vocation, education, and work decisions. On the other hand, while trying to return to a

life as a successful citizen, their hope meets many hard realities: According to the latest report

from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, about 68% of released prisoners were rearrested within 3

years, 79% within 6 years, and 83% within 9 years (Alper et al., 2018). Currently, with the his-

torically high number of people released from prison (Markman et al., 2016), how to best

1Florida International University, Miami, USA

2University of Delaware, Newark, USA

Corresponding Author:

Lin Liu, Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, PCA-

257, Miami, FL 33199-2156, USA.

Email: linliu@fiu.edu

984770JODXXX10.1177/0022042620984770Journal of Drug IssuesLiu and Visher

research-article2021

Liu and Visher 355

integrate them back into society is one of the most pressing issues for researchers, practitioners,

and policymakers.

Several issues have been found in correction programming that impede offender rehabilita-

tion: implementation difficulties (Cullen & Gendreau, 2000; Lowenkamp & Latessa, 2005),

flaws in program design (MacKenzie, 1997; Palmer, 1992), and a mismatch between the targeted

offender population and the program (Barnoski, 2004; Lowenkamp & Latessa, 2005). To capture

all the reasons why released prisoners slip back to a deviant path is well beyond the scope of this

study. Nonetheless, this study contributes to the reentry literature by extending the systemic

model of social disorganization to the reentry context—illustrating how family, community, and

correction agencies simultaneously affect individuals’ drug use during the first year of reentry.

Drug use is a significant risk factor for reentry and reintegration; numerous studies have

demonstrated that released prisoners who struggle with drug addiction are more likely to be rear-

rested and reincarcerated (e.g., Hammersley, 2011; Huebner & Cobbina, 2007; Shaffer et al.,

2009; Spohn et al., 2001; Wolfe et al., 2002). However, the etiology of substance use is largely

formulated from juvenile delinquency (Bjerregaard, 2010; DeLisi et al., 2019; Gallupe & Baron,

2009; Hemovich et al., 2011) and mental health studies (Cancrini, 1994; Carbone-Lopez &

Miller, 2012; Young et al., 2000). Primary causes for substance abuse that are identified from

these studies include trauma (e.g., Jones et al., 2018; Mills et al., 2008; Shaffer et al., 2009),

stress (e.g., Liu et al., 2019; Liu & Visher, 2019), peer pressure (e.g., Curry & Decker, 2003;

Esbensen & Huizinga, 1993; Liu & Miller, 2020), and deviance culture (e.g., Brake, 2013;

Hutton, 2016; Marotta, 2017). Nonetheless, the life context of delinquent youth or traumatized

victims may not be the same as that of released adult prisoners who need to reunite with family,

renew relationships, seek acceptance by their communities, and utilize social service resources to

best reintegrate into society. To examine factors that can explain illicit drug use among this social

group, researchers should start from the distinct challenges in a reentry journey.

Numerous studies have illustrated the challenges that released prisoners face during reentry.

During the transition from prison to community, they may encounter troubling situations such as

social isolation and rejection from family (Liu et al., 2019; Liu & Visher, 2019). Some of the

released prisoners lose their right to vote and participate in the political process, and some even

lose access to social support and educational opportunities afforded to other citizens (Langan &

Levin, 2002; Western, 2018). Last but not the least, with a criminal record, they are confronted

with a particularly difficult time to secure a job to financially survive (Covington & Bloom,

2007; Pager, 2003; Travis et al., 2001; Western, 2018). The multitude of barriers can undermine

reentry progress and trigger social withdrawal and drug use among released prisoners.

But the aforementioned triggers are only from the family and private dimensions of life. We

would be remiss not to mention the other sources of stress—those from the community domain.

Released prisoners do not navigate their post-release lives in a vacuum but in local communities.

Those who return to a cohesive community may have an easier time building networks with

neighbors, using networks to obtain job opportunities, engaging in civic activities and developing

a feeling of connectedness to the community. However, if individuals return to a disordered and

unsafe neighborhood, they may find few avenues to reengage in civic activities and foster pro-

social networks and relationships. Meanwhile, the presence of drug selling, vandalism, and

vacant housing in disorganized places may pose a huge challenge to released prisoners who had

a history of drug use.

Given the multilayered social forces that may be associated with released prisoners’ risk of

illicit drug use, this study draws insights from the systemic model of social disorganization to

examine former prisoners’ substance use. The social disorganization perspective has proved to

be a promising framework in integrative studies that bridge contextual and individual-level risk

factors in reentry (e.g., Chamberlain, 2018; Chamberlain & Wallace, 2016; Hipp et al., 2010;