The Relationship Between Sexual Satisfaction and Psychological Health of Prison Inmates
| Author | Noelia Fernández-Rouco,Rodrigo J. Carcedo,Félix López,Daniel Perlman,M. Begoña Orgaz |
| Published date | 01 March 2015 |
| DOI | 10.1177/0032885514563271 |
| Date | 01 March 2015 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
research-article2014
Article
The Prison Journal
2015, Vol. 95(1) 43 –65
The Relationship
© 2014 SAGE Publications
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DOI: 10.1177/0032885514563271
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Satisfaction and
Psychological Health
of Prison Inmates: The
Moderating Effects of
Sexual Abstinence and
Gender
Rodrigo J. Carcedo1, Daniel Perlman2,
Félix López1, M. Begoña Orgaz1,
and Noelia Fernández-Rouco1,3
Abstract
Research has found a relationship between sexual satisfaction and
psychological health in prisoners, although few studies have focused on
possible moderators of this relationship. The main foci of this study of
a sample of prison inmates were as follows: (a) the association between
sexual satisfaction and psychological health and (b) the moderating effects
of heterosexual activity level (abstinent vs. non-abstinent) and gender on
the relationship between these two variables. In-person interviews were
conducted with 82 males and 91 females who lived in separate modules in
Spain’s Topas Penitentiary. Sexual satisfaction was a significant predictor of
psychological health only for members of the sexually abstinent group. These
1University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
2University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC, USA
3University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Corresponding Author:
Rodrigo J. Carcedo, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of
Salamanca, Facultad de Psicología, Avda. de la Merced, 109-131 37005 Salamanca, Spain.
Email: rcarcedo@usal.es
44
The Prison Journal 95(1)
findings point to the positive effect of sexual satisfaction on psychological
health, especially for the inmates in a less favorable sexual situation (i.e.,
sexual abstinence).
Keywords
sexual abstinence, sexual satisfaction, psychological health, prison inmates
The research to be reported in this article focused on (a) the differences in
sexual satisfaction as a function of gender and the level of sexual activity
(being sexually abstinent or not), (b) the relationship between sexual satis-
faction and psychological health, and (c) the moderating effect of gender
and level of sexual activity on this relationship. Many authors have noted
that inmates suffer due to heterosexual sexual relationship deprivation in
prison (Lacombe, 1997; Levenson, 1983; Maeve, 1999; Neuman, 1982;
Sánchez, 1995). However, none of the authors has empirically tested
whether these inmates showed less sexual satisfaction than the inmates
who have had sex. The role of gender in this relationship is also unknown.
In addition, some prison studies have found a relationship between sexual
satisfaction and psychological health (Carcedo, López, Orgaz, Toth, &
Fernández-Rouco, 2008), but there are no studies of whether this associa-
tion is moderated by other variables such as gender and the level of sexual
activity.
Gender, Sexual Abstinence, and Sexual Satisfaction
Female inmates have been found to show higher levels of sexual satisfaction
than males (Carcedo et al., 2008). However, after controlling for age, nation-
ality, total time in prison, actual sentence time served, and estimated time to
parole and partner status, this difference was not statistically significant
(Carcedo et al., 2011).
Several authors have reported negative feelings toward abstinence by both
male and female inmates (i.e., Lacombe, 1997; Maeve, 1999; Neuman, 1982;
Sánchez, 1995). However, only one study of prison inmates has empirically
investigated the differences in the sexual satisfaction of heterosexually absti-
nent and heterosexually active inmates, finding much lower levels of sexual
satisfaction in the sexually abstinent group (Carcedo, 2005). Gender was not
taken into account in that study, although this is an important variable to con-
sider. In the present study, sexual abstinence and gender effects will be exam-
ined together with respect to inmates’ sexual satisfaction.
Carcedo et al.
45
Sexual Satisfaction and Psychological Health
Prison inmates have been identified as an at-risk population for poor psycho-
logical health because of the distress associated with incarceration (Toch,
1977; Zamble & Porporino, 1988). One of the possible causes of this risk is
that inmates encounter difficulties in having a satisfactory sex life (Carcedo,
2005; Lacombe, 1997; Levenson, 1983; Maeve, 1999; Neuman, 1982).
Linville (1981) found that approximately three quarters of a sample of 100
males in a minimum-security prison reported emotional problems because of
sexual deprivation. In addition, sexual satisfaction and psychological health
and other well-being-related measures have been shown to be significantly
related in prison settings (Carcedo, 2005; Carcedo et al., 2008; Carcedo,
Perlman, López, & Orgaz, 2012) and non-prison studies (Fegg et al., 2003;
Lau, Wang, Cheng, & Yang, 2005; Nicolosi, Moreira, Villa, & Glasser, 2004;
Taleporos & McCabe, 2002). Higher levels of sexual satisfaction were asso-
ciated with higher levels of psychological health and other well-being related
measures.
Moderating Effect of Gender and Sexual
Abstinence on the Relationship Between Sexual
Satisfaction and Psychological Health
The suffering and the deterioration of psychological health due to the lack
of sexual satisfaction have been suggested regarding male inmates
(Lacombe, 1997; Levenson, 1983; Linville, 1981; Neuman, 1982), female
inmates (Pardue, Arrigo, & Murphy, 2011; Sánchez, 1995), and both gen-
ders (Carcedo et al., 2008; Carcedo et al., 2012). However, it is unknown if
the relationship between sexual satisfaction and psychological health is dif-
ferent for male and female inmates. In a study of 118 male and 70 female
prison inmates, Carcedo et al. (2008) found that sexual satisfaction signifi-
cantly explained the psychological health for both genders, although 6.2%
more of the variance was explained for females than males. Notwithstanding,
the possible moderator effect of gender was not tested. In non-prison popu-
lation studies that have strictly measured sexual satisfaction or sexual well-
being, this variable has been associated with psychological health and
happiness in both genders, but the relationship between sexual variables
and psychological measures has been slightly stronger among women than
among men (Laumann et al., 2006; Taleporos & McCabe, 2002). Thus, the
possibility that gender moderates the relationship between sexual satisfac-
tion and psychological health warrants consideration. This will also be
examined in the present study.
46
The Prison Journal 95(1)
In arguing that a lack of sexual satisfaction can negatively impact prison
inmates’ psychological health, most authors (Lacombe, 1997; Levenson,
1983; Maeve, 1999; Neuman, 1982; Sánchez, 1995) were referring mainly to
inmates who have not had heterosexual sexual relationships during their
incarceration. Thus, these authors were implicitly confounding sexual satis-
faction with sexual abstinence. Whereas sexual satisfaction reflects an evalu-
ation of one’s current sexual life, sexual abstinence refers to the complete
lack of sexual relationships during a period of time. These different concepts
may delineate different situations: An inmate may have been sexually absti-
nent during the last 6 months, yet show reasonable high sexual satisfaction.
By contrast, an inmate may have been sexually active, yet have low sexual
satisfaction. In addition, the relationship between inmates’ sexual satisfaction
and psychological health may be different for sexual abstainers versus sexu-
ally active individuals. No prison study has investigated this moderating
effect. Notwithstanding, non-prison studies have found a stronger relation-
ship between sexual satisfaction and general well-being for those who have
been sexually deprived due to the presence of sexual dysfunctions (Lau et al.,
2005; Ventegodt, 1998), physical disabilities (Taleporos & McCabe, 2002),
amputations (Walters & Williamson, 1998), and having had germ-cell tumor
therapy (Fegg et al., 2003). Therefore, the moderating effect of being sexu-
ally abstinent versus active in the relationship between sexual satisfaction
and psychological health will be tested in this research.
According to reactance theory (RT; Brehm, 1966), any form of depriva-
tion may increase the desire for the deprived object (Brehm & Brehm, 1981),
amplifying its relevance for individuals’ psychological health. The major
premise of RT is that individuals wish to operate with a freedom to choose
behaviors to satisfy their needs—in this case sexual needs. If their freedom is
reduced, threatened, or eliminated, individuals will become “motivationally
aroused” to regain this freedom (Brehm, 1966, p. 2). Thus, psychological
reactance is a “motivational state directed toward the re-establishment of free
behaviors that have been eliminated or threatened with elimination.” (p. 9).
With reference to this research, reactance is likely to be high among inmates
whose access to heterosexual activity is thwarted by their circumstances. We
believe that in enhancing the value of sex, such reactance may intensify the
association between their sexual satisfaction and psychological well-being.
Control Variables
Other variables have been demonstrated to be related to inmates’ psychologi-
cal health. For example, a set of socio-demographic and punishment-related
variables have been found to be...
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