The Long-Term Effects of Solitary Confinement From the Perspective of Inmates

• Author: Tomer Einat,Anat Yaron Antar,Liat Tayer
• Published date: 01 December 2021
• DOI: 10.1177/00328855211060312
• Date: 01 December 2021
• Subject Matter: Articles

The Long-Term Effects

of Solitary Conf‌inement

From the Perspective

of Inmates

Liat Tayer

1

, Tomer Einat

1

,

and Anat Yaron Antar

2

Abstract

This qualitative study analyzes the effects of solitary conf‌inement on prison-

ers and the strategies used by them to cope with its diff‌iculties. The f‌indings

indicate that solitary conf‌inement is perceived as unfair and as intensifying

hostile emotions and physical aggression, and that it is related to a range

of long-term physiological, mental, and behavioral disorders. Three strategies

are used to cope with the diff‌iculties of solitary conf‌inement: keeping to a

ritualistic routine, a religious lifestyle, and physical exercise. We conclude

that solitary conf‌inement exacerbates the diff‌iculties of detention and affects

prisoners’health and well-being for short and long terms.

Keywords

solitary conf‌inement, separation, long-term effects, coping strategies, inmates

1

Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel

2

The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College, Emek Yezreel, Israel

Corresponding Author:

Liat Tayer, Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.

Email: Llazimi@gmail.com

Tomer Einat, Bar Ilan University, Department of Criminology, Building 213, Room 437,

Ramat-Gan, 5920002, Israel.

Email: Tomer.Einat@mail.biu.ac.il

Article

The Prison Journal

2021, Vol. 101(6) 652–674

© 2021 SAGE Publications

Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/00328855211060312

journals.sagepub.com/home/tpj

Introduction

Worldwide, hundreds and thousands of incarcerated individuals are held in

conditions of solitary conf‌inement or segregation, whether in order to

protect their own health and safety, to protect others from them, or as a

form of punishment (Butler et al., 2013). In the United States alone, there

are an estimated number of 61,000 inmates in solitary conf‌inement (Resnik

et al., 2018). They are kept apart from the rest of the inmate population,

usually isolated in their cells for periods of 22–24 h, and not included in

prison therapy, rehabilitation, educational, and occupational programming

(Shalev, 2008). This state of affairs occurs regardless of numerous studies

indicating solitary conf‌inement’s harsh negative impact on inmates’mental

and physical health (Haney, 2019; Kysel, 2012; Reiter et al., 2020).

The Israel Prison Service (IPS) uses solitary conf‌inement, with a clear dif-

ferentiation between two mechanisms, according to the reasons for taking that

extreme measure. Isolation (Segregation) is used as punishment, with the

inmate held alone in his cell for the entire day, up to seven consecutive

days, for certain disciplinary violations. A segregated inmate is not allowed

to go out on the daily walk and is also prevented from such privileges as

smoking and receiving visitors (Israel Prison Service, 2012). Separation is

imposed as a preventive measure justif‌ied in terms of prison safety, national

security, protecting the safety of the inmate and/or others, preventing substan-

tial damage to the prison discipline and routine, and preventing felonies

related to violence, organized crime, and drug deals (Israel Prison Service,

2013). Separated inmates are usually held alone in a cell (individual separa-

tion), and sometimes together with one or more incarcerees of the same

status, with signif‌icant restrictions on their movements and interactions

with their surroundings, and excluding them from the prison’s occupational

and rehabilitation services. They may leave their cells to the yard for a

maximum of 2 h a day, accompanied by a correctional off‌icer, and sometimes

with their hands and feet cuffed (Public Defender’sOff‌ice (PDO), 2019).

The decision on individual separation of a prisoner in Israel is made by the

IPS. Nevertheless, six months after an inmate is thus separated,if the IPS seeks

to extend the separation, this requires a decision by a district court.This court

may prolong the separation for no longer than six additional months, and

the procedure must be reinitiated every six months. Consequently, subject

to court discretion, a prisoner may in fact be held in individual separation

for the entire duration of his/her sentence, even if it is for many years

(Prison Order [New Version], 1971).

Despite the use of solitary conf‌inement in penitentiary systems globally,

many studies point to its ineffectiveness in reducing prison violence, or in

Tayer et al. 653