The American Dilemma in Uniform: Race in the Armed Forces

• Author: Charles C. Moskos
• Published date: 01 March 1973
• Date: 01 March 1973
• DOI: 10.1177/000271627340600109
• Subject Matter: Articles

The American Dilemma in Uniform: Race
in the Armed Forces
By CHARLES C. MOSKOS, JR.
ABSTRACT: The transformation of the armed forces from a
segregated to an integrated institution was an impressive
achievement in directed social change. Yet in the present
period the relationship between white and black servicemen
is characterized by polarization with attendant interracial con-
flict.
Data are presented which show an overconcentration
of blacks in the combat arms as well as substantial cross-
service variation in the distribution of black personnel. At
the same time, service life continues to attract and retain
a greater proportion of eligible blacks than whites. The
special situation of black servicemen overseas is discussed
along with an appraisal of the military establishment’s cur-
rent efforts to cope with its racial difficulties. Finally, despite
the fact that racial strife has hampered the mission effective-
ness of the armed forces, it may be that the military will most
likely set the pace towards the alleviation of America’s peren-
nial dilemma—race.
Charles C. Moskos, Jr., is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Sociology
at Northwestern University. He received his B.A. from Princeton University and his
M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of California at Los Angeles. He is the author of
The Sociology of Political Independence and The American Enlisted Man and con-
tributor to and Editor of Public Opinion and the Military Establishment. He is also
Associate Director of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society. In
1969-70 he was awarded a Ford Foundation Fellowship to conduct research on the
United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus.
The research on which this article is based was made possible by a grant from the
Russell Sage Foundation.
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95
THERE was no denying that by the thousand blacks fought on the Ameri-
end of the war in Vietnam, the can side in the War of Independence.
American armed forces were under-
(But over twenty thousand black slaves
going an institutional crisis of major
-on the promise of manumission-
proportions. Never in its modern his-
joined the British as soldiers, supply
tory had the military establishment
handlers, and scouts.)
Several thou-
been subject to such internal turmoil
sand blacks saw service in the War of
or public criticism. Its problems were
1812. During the Civil War one hun-
legion and closely tied to mass media
dred eighty thousand blacks were re-
revelations: atrocities and ecological
cruited into the Union army and served
devastation in Southeast Asia, wide-
in segregated regiments. Following the
spread drug abuse among troops, break-
Civil War, four Negro regiments were
downs in discipline, corruption in ser-
established and were active in the In-
vice clubs, military spying on civilian
dian Wars on the Western frontier and
activists, and much more. Yet, the
later fought with distinction in Cuba
most rooted and pervasive problem con-
during the Spanish-American War. In
fronting the military was essentially in-
the early twentieth century, however,
dependent of America’s global policies
owing to a general rise in American
and derived instead from the perpetual
racial tensions and specific outbreaks of
American dilemma-race. By the end
violence between black troops and
of the 1960s, the military establishment
found itself plagued by the
Chief of Military History (Washington, D.C.:
new chal-
lenges of black
Government
consciousness
Printing Office, 1966) ; David G.
as well as
Mandelbaum, Soldiers Groups and Negro
the persistence of white racism. That
Groups (Berkeley: University of California
black servicemen may find they owe
Press, 1952); Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "Minor-
higher fealty to each other than to the
ity Groups in Military Organization," in
United States military is a possibility
Roger W. Little, ed., Handbook of Military
that haunts commanders. The ability
Institutions
(Beverly Hills,
Calif :
Sage,
of the armed services
1971),
to
pp.
271-89; Lee Nichols, Break-
cope with these
through on the Color Front (New York:
forces will have impact not only on the
Random House, 1954) ; Richard J. Stillman,
capability of the nation’s armed might,
II, Integration of
the Negro in the U.S.
but also on the direction of American
Armed Forces (New York: Praeger, 1968) ;
life in other social
Samuel A. Stouffer et al., The American Sol-
arenas.
dier : Adjustment during Army Life (Prince-
FROM SEGREGATION TO INTEGRATION
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949),
vol.
1, pp. 486-599; John A. Williams,
TO POLARIZATION
Captain Blackman (Garden City, N.Y.:
Blacks have taken part in all of this
Doubleday, 1972) ; and Adam Yarmolinsky,
country’s wars.!
An estimated five
"Military Service and Race," in his The Mili-
tary Establishment (New York: Harper and
1. Materials covering racial matters in the
Row, 1971), pp. 340-54. Invaluable sources
military are quite extensive. A partial bibli-
of information are the racial composition
ography follows: Leo Bogart, Social Research
rates periodically issued by the Office of Civil
and the Desegregation of the U.S. Army
(Chicago:
Rights in the Department of Defense.
Markham Press, 1969) ; Richard M.
The information for this article, in addition
Dalfiume, Desegregation of the U.S. Armed
to the sources cited above, is based on my
Forces (Columbia: University of Missouri
personal observations as a researcher in mili-
Press, 1969); Eli Ginzburg, "The Negro
tary units over the past ten years. During
Soldier," in his The Negro Potential (New
this period I have conducted countless formal
York: Columbia University Press, 1956) ;
and informal interviews with white and black
Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro
servicemen of all ranks and assignments on
Troops, Special Studies on the United States
matters pertaining to race relations in the
Army in World War II by the Office of the
armed forces.

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96
whites, official opinion began to turn
An important exception to the gen-
against the use of black soldiers. Eval-
eral pattern of utilization of black
uation of black soldiers was further
troops in World War II occurred in the
lowered by events in World War I.
winter months of 1944-45 in the Ar-
The combat performance of the all-
dennes battle.
Desperate shortages of
Negro Ninety-second Infantry Division
combat personnel resulted in the army
came under heavy criticism. Yet it was
asking for black volunteers. The plan
also observed that black units operat-
was to have platoons of blacks serve in
ing under French command, in a more
companies previously all white. Some
racially tolerant situation, performed
2,500 blacks volunteered for this assign-
well.
ment. Both in terms of black combat
performance and white soldiers’ reac-
Army policy
tions, the Ardennes experiment was an
In the interval between the two world
unqualified success.
This
incident
wars, the army not only remained seg-
would later be used to support argu-
regated, but also adopted a policy of a
ments for integration.
Negro quota which was to keep the
After World War II, pressure from
number of blacks in the army propor-
Negro and liberal groups coupled with
tionate to the total population. Never
an acknowledgment that black soldiers
in the pre-World War II period, how-
were being poorly utilized led the army
ever, did the number of blacks approach
to reexamine its racial policies. A re-
this quota. On the eve of Pearl Har-
port by an army board in 1945, while
bor, blacks constituted 5.9 percent of
holding racial integration to be a desir-
the army; and there were only five
able goal and while making recommen-
black officers, three of whom were chap-
dations to improve black opportunity in
lains.
During World War II, blacks
the army, concluded that practical con-
entered the army in larger numbers, but
siderations required a maintenance of
at no time did they exceed 10 percent
segregation and the quota system. In
of total personnel. Black soldiers re-
light of World War II experiences, the
mained in segregated units, and ap-
report further recommended that black
proximately three-quarters served in the
personnel be assigned exclusively to
quartermaster, engineer, and transpor-
support units rather than combat units.
tation corps. To make matters worse
Another army board report came out
from the viewpoint of &dquo;the right to
in 1950 with essentially the same con-
fight,&dquo; a slogan loudly echoed by Negro
clusions.
2
Both reports placed heavy
organizations in the United States, even
stress on the supervisory and discipli-
black combat units were frequently used
nary problems resulting from the dis-
for heavy-duty labor. This was high-
proportionate number of blacks found
lighted when the Second Cavalry was
in the lower mental and aptitude levels
broken up into service units owing to
as established by army entrance exami-
command apprehension over the combat
nations.
From the standpoint of the
qualities, as yet untested, of...