Supermax Prisons: Their Rise, Current Practices, and Effect on Inmates

• Author: Vanja M. K. Stenius,Jesenia Pizarro
• Published date: 01 June 2004
• Date: 01 June 2004
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0032885504265080
• Subject Matter: Journal Article

10.1177/0032885504265080THE PRISON JOURNAL / June 2004Pizarro, Stenius / SUPERMAX PRISONS

SUPERMAX PRISONS:

THEIR RISE, CURRENT PRACTICES,

AND EFFECT ON INMATES

JESENIA PIZARRO

VANJA M. K. STENIUS

Rutgers University

In recent years, a number of new approaches in corrections have developed, one of

which is the super-maximum, or “supermax,” prison. This article explores the rootsof

these institutions, explains how they operate, and examinestheir potential effects on

inmate populations. The extant empirical research on supermax facilities suggests

that these institutions have the potential to damage inmates’mental health while fail-

ing to meet their purported goals (e.g., deterring inmates in the general prison popu-

lation from committing criminal acts inside prison), resultingin added problems for

correctional administrators and increasedeconomic costs to public budgets without

apparent benefits.

Keywords: supermax; solitary confinement; prison administration;

administrative segregation

The United States has built the largest prison system in the world (Currie,

1998), and the prison population has skyrocketed in the past decade. Be-

tween 1973 and the beginning of the 1990s, the number of prisoners in-

creased by 332%, and the incarceration rate per 100,000 citizens increased

by over 200% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1993; Clear, 1994). The growth

in the prison population brought with it an increase in young, more violent

inmates as well as court rulings affecting the powers of guards and adminis-

trators. The combination of these factors pushed many corrections practi-

tioners and scholars to try to develop more effective ways to manage penal

institutions and to ensure prison safety. In doing so, a number of new ap-

proaches in corrections emerged in recent years, one of which is the super-

The authors wish to thank Dr. TravisPratt for his helpful comments and assistance in the

development of this article.

THE PRISON JOURNAL, Vol. 84 No. 2, June 2004 248-264

DOI: 10.1177/0032885504265080

© 2004 Sage Publications

248

maximum, or “supermax,” prison. The National Institute of Corrections

(NIC) (1997) defined supermax prisons as

free-standing facilities, or a distinct unit within a facility, that provides for the

management and secure control of inmates who have been officially desig-

nated as exhibiting violent or seriously disruptive behavior while incarcerated.

Such inmates have been determined to be a threat to safety and security in tra-

ditional high security facilities, and their behavior can be controlled only by

separation, restricted movement, and limited direct access to staff and other

inmates. (p. 1)

The advent of supermax institutions has not been without controversy.

Opponents argue that supermax institutions violate prisoners’rights, contrib-

ute to inmates’psychological problems, and are extremely costly (Fellner&

Mariner, 1997). Proponents claim that the “toughening” of the inmate popu-

lation, increased gang activity, and difficulties associated with maintaining

order in severely crowded prisons necessitate supermax facilities (Riveland,

1999). This article explores the roots of these controversial institutions,

explains how they operate, and examines their potential effects on inmate

populations. Although limited, the extant empirical research on supermax

facilities demonstrates that these institutions have the potential to damage

inmates’mental health while failing to meet their purported goals (e.g., deter-

ring inmates in the general prison population from committing criminal acts

inside prison), resulting in added problems for correctional administrators

and increased economic costs to public budgets without apparent benefits.

SUPERMAX PRISONS:

THEIR RISE, CURRENT PRACTICES, AND LEGAL ISSUES

THE ORIGINS AND RISE OF SUPERMAX PRISONS

Supermax institutions separate the most serious and chronic troublemak-

ers from the general prison population (Henningsen, Johnson, & Wells,

1999). These institutions house inmates in solitary confinement, with mini-

mal contact with other humans and virtually no educational, religious, or

other programs. Their general purpose is to increase control over inmates

who are known to be violent, assaultive, major escape risks, or likely to pro-

mote disturbances in the general prison population (National Institute of

Corrections, 1997; Riveland, 1999). The rationale behind supermax facilities

is to segregate the most dangerous inmates to protect prison staff members

and inmate populations. Furthermore, proponents of supermax facilities

Pizarro, Stenius / SUPERMAX PRISONS 249