Strain as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Parental Attachment and Delinquent Participation

• Author: Ruth X. Liu
• Published date: 01 December 2011
• Date: 01 December 2011
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/1057567711431127
• Subject Matter: Articles

International Criminal Justice Review
21(4) 427-442
Strain as a Moderator of
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DOI: 10.1177/1057567711431127
http://icj.sagepub.com
Parental Attachment and
Delinquent Participation:
A China Study
Ruth X. Liu1
Abstract
This study assesses the moderating influence of strain on the relationship between parental
attachment and delinquent participation among Chinese adolescents. Drawing on survey reports of
1,866 middle-school students from Fuzhou City, China, multiple regression analyses yield results
which show that the relationship between parental attachment and delinquency becomes weaker
as adolescents report higher levels of status or achievement strain. Furthermore, despite reduced
effect, parent–adolescent attachment continues to be inversely related to delinquency even at higher
levels of achievement frustration. These results are discussed in light of China’s sociocultural setting
and policy implications.
Keywords
parental attachment, strain, delinquency, Chinese adolescents
Introduction
Social control theorists have long posited that attachment to parents serves as a protective factor
(Hirschi, 1969). Youth and adolescents who are close to parents may refrain from committing crime
for fear of jeopardizing parental relationship or losing the love and respect of their parents. This con-
tention has been supported by empirical studies that find inverse relationship between closeness to
parents and illegal or unconventional involvement among youth (e.g., Gove & Crutchfield, 1982;
Hindelang, 1973; Hirschi, 1969; Jensen & Rojek, 1980; Krohn & Massey, 1980; Nye, 1958; Rankin
& Kern, 1994; Rankin & Wells 1990; Sampson & Laub, 1993; Wiatrowski, Griswold, & Roberts,
1981).
1 Department of Sociology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Ruth X. Liu, Department of Sociology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr., San Diego, CA 92182, USA
Email: rliu@mail.sdsu.edu

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International Criminal Justice Review 21(4)
Meanwhile, strain or stress researchers have long hypothesized that exposure to strain is a risk
factor (Agnew, 2006; Kaplan, 1986, 1996). Adolescents and youth who feel frustrated with
conventional life circumstances may turn to illegal or unconventional activities as a corrective action
to counter with their negative emotions. This claim has generally been supported by research that
examines the relationship between exposure to strain and delinquent participation (e.g., Agnew,
1992; Agnew & Brezina, 1997; Agnew & White, 1992; Aseltine, Gore, & Gordon, 2000; Bao, Haas,
& Pi, 2004; Brezina, 1996, 2000; Farnworth & Leiber, 1989; Hoffmann & Cerbone, 1999; Kaplan,
1986, 1996; Liu & Lin, 2007; Mazerolle, Burton, Cullen, Evans, & Payne, 2000).
While strains are considered push factors for crime and delinquency whereas attachment to par-
ents is a control factor, few researchers, however, have integrated these two lines of work by asking
whether or not the constraining effect of attachment to parents may depend upon or vary by levels of
strain experienced by individuals.1 Although theoretical support is available, empirical assessment is
lacking. Thus, does the protective influence of adolescent–parent attachment become weaker or
even completely eroded if adolescents encounter high levels of strain, especially in domains other
than family? Can parent–child bond continue to shield adolescents from illegal involvement even
in the presence of high magnitude of stress or strains? These questions are intriguing and important
to address especially in such social setting as contemporary China, where conditions and circum-
stances present an interesting scenario for studying this interactive relationship. On the one hand,
Confucius heritage and cultural traditions in China place high emphasis on family responsibilities
and importance of parent–child relationship (Bao & Haas, 2009; Chao, 1994; Chow & Zhao,
1996; Kim, 1997; Tsui & Rich, 2002; Wei, 1983). On the other hand, social conditions and circum-
stances in contemporary China have placed young people at an elevated level of stress or strain (Bao
et al., 2004; Fong, 2004; Liu & Lin, 2007). Meanwhile, reports from China have pointed to the rising
rates of crime or illegal activities committed by juveniles (Associated Press, 2005; China Daily,
2007; Deng & Cordilia, 1999), prompting some scholars to attribute such crime waves to the
outcome of exposure to great magnitude of strains embedded in the rapidly changing and highly
stressful contemporary Chinese society (e.g., Bao & Haas, 2009). Thus, addressing the question
of whether traditional control mechanism such as parent–child relationship can sustain the negative
impact of elevated stress levels on delinquency among youth have theoretical importance as well as
practical implications. Researching on this topic not only fills a gap in the literature. Meanwhile,
answers to these questions can assist in the efforts to develop programs that can effectively combat
rising crime rates among juveniles. Thus, with this goal in mind, the present study extends the
literature by asking whether or not closeness to parents can constrain highly stressed adolescents
from turning to delinquency for adaptation in the contemporary Chinese society.
Furthermore, this study assesses the domains of strain (other than family) that may most likely
erode or weaken the protective effect of adolescent–parent bond on delinquent outcome. Prior
research has shown that Chinese adolescents have encountered stressors in a variety of areas and
some areas may constitute greater sources of frustration than others (e.g., Liu & Lin, 2007). This
study therefore extends this line of research by assessing the areas of strain as most likely moderators
of the relationship between parental attachment and delinquent participation among Chinese
adolescents.
Literature Review and Hypotheses
Parental Attachment, Strains, and Delinquency
In his general theory of crime and delinquency, Agnew (2005) proposes that causes of crime can
be organized into five life domains that influence delinquency through motivations for and
constraints against crime. Constraints are factors that affect crime directly by holding individuals

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back or restraining them (Agnew, 2005). Accordingly, parental attachment may influence
delinquency through adolescents’ stake in conformity, which acts as a constraint against crime by
holding them back. Adolescents with strong emotional bonds to parents may perceive higher stake
in conformity than committing crime due to their love, care, and/or respect for their parents (Agnew,
2005). This claim may be more pertinent to Chinese setting where traditional cultural values and
Confucius heritage attach high importance to family relationship and obligations (Deutsch, 2006;
Ho, 1986, 1989). Chinese children are socialized with and generally bound by the virtue of filial piety
(Deutsch, 2006; Ho, 1986, 1989). Thus, Chinese children who are close to their parents may feel even
more obliged to conform to societal rules in an effort to obtain parental love and family approval.
Contrary to constraint factors that refrain individuals from committing crime, motivations entice
or pressure adolescents to engage in delinquency (Agnew, 2005). Thus, experience of strain and
negative emotions such as anger and frustration push adolescents to use corrective action by enga-
ging in rebellious or illegal activities to cope with vexing situations. In recent years, scholars who
study Chinese juveniles have delineated various domains of strain that range from interpersonal or
relational types to those pertaining to school and academic achievement. Findings from these studies
have generally supported the contention that experience of strain pushes adolescents to engage in
illegal or delinquent activities as a mode of adaptation (Bao et al, 2004; Bao & Haas, 2009; Liu
& Lin, 2007).
Furthermore, consistent with Agnew’s argument (2005) though it is not being tested in this study,
causes of crime which are organized in life domains may influence one another as well as
delinquency both directly and indirectly through their effects on motivation and constraint factors.
Thus, declining bond with parents may lead to greater exposure to strain in other domains including
work and school. Similarly, strains in other domains may spill into the family by weakening ties
between parents and children. It is thus assumed that parent–adolescent bond and strains tend to
influence each other and hence indirectly on crime and delinquency.
The main concern of this study, however, is in regard to the interactive relationship between
attachment to parents and experience of strain in domains other than family. We are concerned
whether bonding to parents can sustain its protective influence in the presence of high magnitude
of strains. Drawing on Agnew (2005) that causes of crime organized in life domains may influence
delinquency jointly or interactively, it is hypothesized that the effect of parent–adolescent
attachment on delinquency may be conditioned by levels of strain experienced by adolescents.
More specifically, it is expected that parental attachment may be less effective in offsetting
delinquency in the presence of high magnitude of strains experienced by adolescents in
domains other than family.
The above hypotheses regarding the nature of the interactive relationship are consistent with two
theoretical contentions....