Night After Night, My Heartbeat Shows the Fear: Examining Predictors of Fear of Crime in the Nonurban Australian Context

• Published date: 01 December 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/10575677221125848
• Author: Claudia Sabine,Tarah Hodgkinson
• Date: 01 December 2023
• Subject Matter: Original Articles

Night After Night, My

Heartbeat Shows the Fear:

Examining Predictors of Fear

of Crime in the Nonurban

Australian Context

Claudia Sabine

1

and Tarah Hodgkinson

2

Abstract

Research on fear of crime (FOC) is well established in urban contexts. However, few studies

explore how common predictors of FOC operate within nonurban environments. This study exam-

ines typical predictors of FOC within the nonurban context of Roma, Queensland, and specif‌ically

explores mental health as a predictor in this context. Using survey data, key f‌indings indicate that a

number of individual and ecological level predictors, such as gender, prior victimization, social cohe-

sion, and social disorder, remain consistent with previous literature on urban contexts. However,

these results counter recent f‌indings indicating that gender does not predict FOC in the nonurban

context. Interestingly, the results also indicate that mental health is not a predictor of FOC. These

f‌indings present implications for fear reduction strategies and future research in nonurban contexts.

Keywords

Fear of crime, nonurban, mental health, resident survey, Australia

Introduction

Fear of crime (FOC) produces a range of negative physical and psychological consequences that

reduce quality of life (Perkins & Taylor, 2002). Avoidance behaviors resulting from FOC limit one’s

social interaction and physical activities, affecting health and the social functions of a neighborhood

(Stafford et al., 2007). Given the seriousness of FOC as a social and ecological problem, researchers

have explored what predicts FOC, suggesting a combination of individual- and ecological-level

factors (Rader, 2017; Warr, 2000). These predictors include age, gender, ethnicity, prior victimiza-

tion, collective eff‌icacy, social cohesion, and social and physical disorder (Perkins & Taylor, 2002;

Scarborough et al., 2010).

1

School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Griff‌ith University, Mt Gravatt, Australia

2

Department of Criminology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Brantford, Ontario, Canada

Corresponding Author:

TarahHodgkinson, Department of Criminology, Wilfrid Laurier University, 171 Colborne Street, Brantford, Ontario,Canada

N3T 6C9.

Email: thodgkinson@wlu.ca

Original Article

International Criminal Justice Review

2023, Vol. 33(4) 367-383

© 2022 Georgia State University

Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/10575677221125848

journals.sagepub.com/home/icj

Although these predictors of FOC are heavily researched in urban environments, less is under-

stood about how fear affects those in nonurban contexts. For example, in a recent study of FOC

in a small community in Canada, the researchers found that gender, one of the most common predic-

tors of FOC, was not statistically signif‌icant (Hodgkinson & Lunney, 2021). This f‌inding suggests

the need to further explore common predictors of FOC in nonurban settings. Furthermore, residents

of nonurban areas often face unique challenges. For example, these areas often suffer from high rates

of violence, a lack of access to mental health care, and higher rates of suicide (Caldwell et al., 2004;

Hodgkinson & Harkness, 2020; Hodgkinson & Harris, 2021; Morley et al., 2007). However, little

research has explored the role of mental health and FOC in nonurban contexts (Foster et al.,

2016). As such, this study examines both common predictors of FOC, and the impact of mental

health, in the nonurban context of Roma, Queensland. Findings not only contribute to our under-

standing of FOC in nonurban contexts in Australia but also potential fear-reduction strategies in non-

urban contexts.

Background

Def‌ining Nonurban Contexts

Def‌ining the nonurban context has proven diff‌icult (Donnermeyer, 2007). There is no universal

def‌inition of “rural”within Australia (Carcach, 2000). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)

classif‌ies rural areas as those that have fewer than 1,000 residents. However, “rural”and “remote”

are both terms that include all areas outside of major metropolitan areas and capital cities in

Australia (AIHW, 2020; Carcach, 2000). The Australian Standard Geographical Standard indicates

these rural and remote areas are classif‌ied as inner regional, outer regional, remote, or very remote.

The ASGS def‌ines Roma as an outer regional area, meaning its geographic location imposes restric-

tions on socialization opportunities, and the accessibility of goods and services (ABS, 2001, 2018).

Although not considered a rural area by the ABS, Roma is considered nonurban and ref‌lects the char-

acteristics of rural and remote areas of Australia, including a large agricultural and/or oil industry,

longer distances to services, and higher crime rates (ABS, 2017). Nonurban and rural will be used

interchangeably in this study.

Fear of Crime

Fear of crime has long been a focus of study in criminological research, because it has both indi-

vidual and social implications. Beyond personal concerns or anxiety, fear of crime can result in social

disengagement. If residents are afraid of crime in the neighborhood, they may retreat to the safety of

their homes, leading to fewer people on the streets and, in turn, less guardianship against crime. As

such, FOC can result lead to avoidance behaviors that reduce social cohesion and social control and

can actually lead to increases in opportunities for crime (Bursik & Grasmick, 1993; Hale, 1996).

Despite extensive investigation, researchers have struggled to provide a clear and specif‌ic concep-

tualization of FOC (Hale, 1996; Rader, 2017; Warr, 2000). Previously, the concepts of FOC and per-

ceived risk have been used interchangeably (Ferraro & LaGrange, 1987; Rader, 2017; Warr, 2000).

However, researchers have argued these are distinct constructs and, rather, FOC is the emotional

response to an individual’s perception of how likely they are to be victimized (Rader, 2017; Warr,

2000). According to Alper and Chappell (2012), there are three main theoretical models for FOC:

vulnerability, social disorder, and social integration. Respectively, there are individual variables

that make a person believe they are more susceptible to being a victim (age, gender, etc.), there

are neighborhood indicators of incivility that contribute to fear, and f‌inally, there are protective

factors such as collective eff‌icacy and cohesion that can guard against FOC. Although all theoretical

368 International Criminal Justice Review 33(4)