A Multitheoretical Framework for Assessing Performance-Enhancing Drug Use: Examining the Utility of Self-Control, Social Learning, and Control Balance Theories

• Author: Saeed Kabiri,Seyyedeh Masoomeh (Shamila) Shadmanfaat,Dale W. Willits
• DOI: 10.1177/0022042619839935
• Published date: 01 July 2019
• Date: 01 July 2019
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042619839935

Journal of Drug Issues

2019, Vol. 49(3) 512 –530

© The Author(s) 2019

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DOI: 10.1177/0022042619839935

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Article

A Multitheoretical Framework for

Assessing Performance-Enhancing

Drug Use: Examining the Utility of

Self-Control, Social Learning, and

Control Balance Theories

Saeed Kabiri1, Dale W. Willits2,

and Seyyedeh Masoomeh (Shamila) Shadmanfaat3

Abstract

This research examines the efficacy of criminological theories for explaining variation in

doping behavior in professional athletes. Self-report data were collected from a sample of 732

professional athletes from Iran. Regression models were estimated using theoretically informed

measures to examine performance-enhancing drug (PED) usage. Results show that variables

representing self-control theory, social learning theory, and control balance theory were

statistically significant predictors of PED use and account for a sizable amount of variation in

PED use. Findings suggest that criminological theory can contribute to our understanding of PED

use by professional athletes, which suggests that sports regulators might benefit from examining

the criminological and criminal justice literatures as they consider how to combat the sports

doping crisis. The results also provide additional support for each of the theoretical traditions

considered, demonstrating that these theories can be useful for examining noncriminal behavior

(doping) and can be useful in non-Western contexts (Iran).

Keywords

doping, professional sports, criminological theory

Introduction

The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), also known as doping, is one of the most

important issues in the world of sports (Loland, 2018). Despite international efforts to reduce

doping in professional sports, recent research indicates that PED usage rates not only have not

diminished but in fact have increased in recent years (de Hon, Kuipers, & van Bottenburg, 2015).

The prevalence of doping in various sports fields has been recently reported as being between

10% (Barkoukis, Lazuras, Tsorbatzoudis, & Rodafinos, 2013) and 39% (Kegelaers, Wylleman,

De Brandt, Van Rossem, & Rosier, 2018). There is also nation-level variation in doping

1University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran

2Washington State University, Pullman, USA

3University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

Corresponding Author:

Dale W. Willits, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Washington State University, Johnson Tower 723,

Pullman, WA 99164, USA.

Email: dale.willits@wsu.edu

839935JODXXX10.1177/0022042619839935Journal of Drug IssuesKabiri et al.

research-article2019

Kabiri et al. 513

prevalence rates. For example, studies conducted in Iran tend to show higher levels of PED use,

with recent estimates at 27% (Nakhaee, Pakravan, & Nakhaee, 2013), 32% (Bahrami, Yousefi,

Kaviani, & Ariapooran, 2014), and 52% (Kabiri et al., 2018; Kabiri et al., 2018) in individual and

group sports. Given the widespread use of PEDs in the face of strict rules and punishments

(Kegelaers et al., 2018), PED usage is recognized as a social problem internationally (Efverström,

Ahmadi, Hoff, & Bäckström, 2016). As such, there is great need to better understand the etiology

of PED usage as the current efforts to reduce doping have largely failed.

To date, there have been several self-report studies from a wide variety of perspectives exam-

ining PED usage in sports, covering athletes from a number of Western and non-Western coun-

tries. Research has examined factors like moral disengagement (Ring & Kavussanu, 2018),

attitudes toward PED use (Goulet, Valois, Buist, & Côté, 2010; Saati Asr, Bashirian, Heidari

Moghadam, Barati, & Moeini, 2018), pressure from others (Ijadunola et al., 2018; Kabiri et al.,

2018), and the role of perceived benefits and role models (Boardley, Grix, & Dewar, 2014). In

addition, some researchers have applied criminological concepts to explore PED use, including

low self-control (Chan et al., 2015; Kabiri et al., 2018), deterrence (Kabiri et al., 2018), and asso-

ciations with delinquent peers (Kabiri et al., 2018). Although there has been increased scholarly

attention on PED usage, many questions still exist regarding the etiology of PED use. The current

research contributes to the literature by examining PED use among a sample of Iranian profes-

sional athletes.

The current research is among the first to examine multiple criminological theories and their

efficacy for explaining PED usage in a single study. Specifically, the current study applies social

learning theory (Akers & Jensen, 2011), self-control theory (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990), and

control balance theory (Tittle, 1995) to explore doping at the professional level. One of the pri-

mary goals of this study is to determine the extent to which criminological theories are useful at

explaining doping behavior. If doping is driven by the same factors as crime and deviance, this

may imply that sports regulators should consider the insights of criminal justice and criminologi-

cal theory as they think about how to combat doping in sports.

This research is of particular importance from an Iranian perspective. Sports have become an

important part of Iranians’ social and cultural lifestyles, with both high sports participation rates

and a high degree of status afforded to professional athletes (Kabiri, 2010). Moreover, athletes

are viewed as one of the most trusted social groups in Iran (Rezaeipasha & Sharepour, 2014;

Shiani, Mousavi, & Zare, 2017), with some suggesting that sports participation and success in

national and international competitions enhances Iran’s social identity and national pride (Eydi

& Abbasi, 2014). Iran formally agreed to accept World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) guidelines

in 2003, and as such, the use of substances banned by WADA can lead to heavy and sometimes

career-ended suspensions for Iranian athletes. Yet, given evidence that PED rates are high in Iran

(Bahrami et al., 2014; Kabiri et al., 2018; Nakhaee et al., 2013), PED use is a significant source

of concern in Iran. There is also broad concern regarding the cost of continuously monitoring and

testing athletes and that the relevant institutions combating doping are not able to efficiently and

comprehensively control this issue (Azizi, 2012; Haerinejad, Ostovar, Farzaneh, & Keshavarz,

2016; Kabiri, 2018; Sepehri, Fard, & Sepehri, 2009).

Doping in Professional Sports

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was founded in 1999 with “the aim of bringing consis-

tency to antidoping policies and regulations within sports organizations and governments across

the world” (WADA, 2018). Although WADA addresses doping from several perspectives, they

are perhaps best known for publishing and maintaining a list of banned substances. Since the

formation of WADA, there has been an increased focus on doping as a broader social problem,

although there is evidence that doping, though not illegal prior to the 20th century, has existed in