Language‐Based Exclusion and Prosocial Behaviors in Organizations

• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21637
• Date: 01 July 2015
• Author: Mukta Kulkarni,Kristin Sommer
• Published date: 01 July 2015

Human Resource Management, July–August 2015, Vol. 54, No. 4. Pp. 637–652

© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21637

Correspondence to: Mukta Kulkarni, Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore,

Karnataka 560076, Phone: +91 80 2699 3029, Fax: +91 80 2658 4050, E-mail: mkulkarni@iimb.ernet.in.

LANGUAGE-BASED EXCLUSION

AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIORS

INORGANIZATIONS

MUKTA KULKARNI AND KRISTIN SOMMER

Organizations can be seen as amalgams of languages that can serve as a source

of divisive tensions among employees. In our conceptual model, we draw upon

social identity and social exclusion research to propose that linguistic diver-

sity increases the potential for language-based exclusion in multilingual work

settings. Language may cue listeners to ethnic or cultural stereotypes as well

as negatively affect perceptions of speakers’ competence, leading listeners to

exclude speakers of certain languages. We contend that when excluded, percep-

tion of oneself can be cast in an antagonistic relation to perceptions of others,

with detrimental effects on prosocial behaviors. Perceptions of procedural unfair-

ness, a weakened identity, and impaired mood serve to amplify the association

between language-based exclusion and prosocial behaviors. However, organi-

zational factors such as positive diversity climate may mitigate experiences with

language-based exclusion. We outline an agenda for future research and discuss

implications for human resource practice. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Keywords: language-based exclusion, prosocial behaviors, justice, identity,

social exclusion

Consider the growing recognition of

linguistic diversity across the globe.

The United Nations has translated its

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

into 375 languages and dialects. The

United States Census Bureau report (2010) indi-

cates that the percentage of Americans speaking

non-English languages has grown by 140 over the

past three decades. A fervently debated topic in

the United States concerns the national identity

of American residents as based on the English

language. Language-based controversies appear in

diverse policy deliberations, including bilingual

education, the right to speak one’s language in

one’s workplace, the necessity of bilingual ballots,

and the need to constitute legal proceedings in

multiple languages (Brandes, 2009).

Organizations can also be seen as an amalgam

of different languages and speakers. According

to the United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development, the number of multinational orga-

nizations has increased eightfold from 11,000

to 79,000 between 1976 and 2007, and employ-

ers continue to expatriate employees to various

global locations, as well as leverage local talent

as they expand internationally (Ernst & Young,

2012). Even within national boundaries, employ-

ers have to contend with tensions and lawsuits

spurred by languages that have served to segre-

gate the workforce. For example, English-only

policies are seen as discriminatory by those who

speak English as a second language (Roffer &

Sanservino, 2000). Employees today are undeni-

ably and progressively more likely to be working

638 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, JULY–AUGUST 2015

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

We define language-

based exclusion as

any circumstance

in which language

serves as the basis

for real or perceived

rejection by others.

on language use (i.e., uneven proficiency in the

lingua franca). Drawing from relevant research

on social identity (Blader & Tyler, 2009; Tyler &

Blader, 2003) and social exclusion (Thau, Aquino,

& Poortvliet, 2007), we further propose that lan-

guage-based exclusion may hinder motives for

prosocial behavior in multilingual work envi-

ronments. Prosocial behaviors, or those that go

beyond regular job roles, are especially critical as

they influence long-term organizational outcomes

such as performance, innovation, and respon-

siveness to changing environments (Van Dyne,

Graham, & Dienesch, 1994).

We present an initial framework to illustrate

how exclusionary experiences stemming from lin-

guistic diversity may reduce prosocial behaviors

by way of lowering perceptions of fairness in the

workplace, weakening employees’ identification

with their work group and/or their organizations,

and negatively impacting mood at work. We fur-

ther suggest that contextual factors such as group

longevity, group diversity climate, and organiza-

tional human resource practices will moderate the

impact of linguistic diversity on language-based

exclusion. Our conceptual framework is depicted

in Figure 1.

Language-Based Exclusion

We define language-based exclusion as any circum-

stance in which language serves as the basis for real

or perceived rejection by others. Language-based

exclusion can be subtle, such as when English-

speaking employees momentarily switch to a

alongside coworkers with different linguistic

backgrounds.

While employers may espouse a certain lin-

gua franca, or an official language of communi-

cation, employees may use other languages for

daily work. This may lead to multiple problems of

communication and collaboration that influence

individual and organizational outcomes (Beyene,

Hinds, & Cramton, 2009). Recognizing the impor-

tance of managing linguistic diver-

sity, global organizations such as

Microsoft have cultivated language-

based employee groups who help

speakers of non-English languages

(i.e., other employees) integrate in

the overall culture of Microsoft and

the United States. Global human

resource practitioners are also urged

to learn multiple languages so as

to be aware of and sensitive to cul-

tural differences represented in their

workforce (Tyler, 2011).

Considering the importance

of aforementioned language-based

issues, we echo the concern of Jonsen, Maznevski,

and Schneider (2011) that language-based diver-

sity is a critical theme missing from organizational

diversity research. In this article, we propose that

linguistic diversity may increase the incidence

of language-based exclusion within organizations.

Exclusion may stem from cued ethnic or cultural

stereotypes that activate group identity boundar-

ies, or from perceptions of incompetence based

FIGURE 1. A Model Linking Language-Based Exclusion in Organizations to Reductions in Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial

behaviors

Contextual factors

• Group longevity

• Group diversity climate

• HR practices

Social identity

• Pride

• Perceived respect

• Identification

Language-based exclusion

• Language-cued

stereotypes

• Perceived competence

due to language proficiency

Procedural justice

• Fairness of decision

making

• Fairness of treatment

P1 P3 P2

P5P4

Positive mood at work

P6 P7

P8,

P9,

P10

P = proposition