Family Relationships and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: Results from a National Longitudinal Survey

• Published date: 01 July 2002
• Author: Robert J. Volk,Todd Q. Miller
• Date: 01 July 2002
• DOI: 10.1177/002204260203200314
• Subject Matter: Article

© 2002 BY THE JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES

JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 0022-0426/02/03 945-972

__________

Todd Miller, Ph.D., is an associate professor of psychology at the University of St. Thomas. HIs

interests include how family relationships and hostility and cynicism contribute to poor social functioning

and physical health. Robert Volk, Ph.D., is Vice Chairman for Research in the Department of Family

and Community Medicine at Baylor College of Medicine. His interests include development of the

alcohol use disorders identification test for primary care patients.

FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT CIGARETTE

SMOKING: RESULTS FROM A NATIONAL LONGITUDINAL

SURVEY

TODD Q. MILLER, ROBERT J. VOLK

The current study used national survey data to identify which aspects of family

relationships are predictive of experimental and daily cigarette smoking. A multi-

wave longitudinal survey periodically assessed adolescents aged 11 to 17 (N =

1,725) over a seven year follow-up period. Parent interviewers were obtained at

the initial screening. Nineteen indicators of family relationships were used based

on parent and child interviews. Several indicators of smoking were used including

first time cigarette smoking, a nine-point scale of intensity of experimentation with

cigarettes, an indicator of daily smoking, and an indicator of smoking at least five

or more cigarettes per day. Logistic and multiple regression analyses that controlled

for ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status found that family relationships were

only predictive for subjects under the age of 18. Significant predictors were (a)

indices of parental attachment, (b) indices of time spent with one’s family, (c) having

older siblings who smoke, (d) family structure, (e) family stress, (g) parental negative

labeling of the child, and (h) parental leniency towards delinquent acts. We conclude

that several aspects of family relationships are important predictors of adolescent

cigarette smoking and predict daily smoking more strongly than initial smoking.

INTRODUCTION

Parent-child interventions designed to prevent smoking are based on social-

psychological theories of the development of adolescent cigarette smoking. These

theories suggest that a lack of positive family relationships are an antecedent to

adolescent cigarette use (Petraitis, Flay, & Miller, 1995). Although theory suggests

MILLER, VOLK

946 JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES

that family relationships are important, the empirical literature has not consistently

identified the critical aspects of family relationships that predict cigarette smoking

(Conrad, Flay, & Hill, 1992). Identifying the critical aspects of family relationships

that are associated with adolescents not smoking may provide valuable information

for designing successful parent-child interventions. Family relationships have been

operationalized in a variety of ways, ranging from family structural characteristics

to the quality of the parent-child relationship (Conrad et al.). Some of these aspects

of family relationships may be risk factors for adolescent cigarette smoking while

others are not. The purpose of the current paper is to identify which aspects of

family life are predictive of adolescent initial experimentation and daily cigarette

use, utilizing a wide-ranging set of indicators of family relationships.

PREVIOUS THEORY ON THE ROLE OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS IN ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE USE

There are many theories of the etiology of substance use, and most of these

theories suggest that family bonding is a cause of substance use. For a review, see

Petraitis et al. (1995). Most argue that a lack of family bonding produces more time

spent with peers and a rejection of conventional norms, which in turn leads to

bonding with deviant peers who engage in illicit behaviors such as underage cigarette

smoking. The bonding with deviant peers leads to more positive attitudes regarding

cigarette use and a further deterioration of norms against using cigarettes and

eventual cigarette use (see Petraitis et al.).

Although most theories mention family bonding, the definition of family appears

to vary widely among theories. Previous theory suggests that several aspects of

family relationships may be predictive of cigarette smoking, including family

disorganization (Akers, 1977; Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985; Jessor & Jessor,

1977), the relative influence of parents versus peers (Elliott et al.; Hawkins & Weis,

1985; Kaplan, 1975), unrealistic parental achievement expectations for their child

(Akers; Hawkins & Weis), family closeness (i.e., warmth and cohesion) (Akers;

Simons, Conger & Whitbeck, 1988), negative labeling of the child by their parents

(Jessor & Jessor; Kaplan), time spent with their family (Elliott et al., 1985), and

methods of discipline and supervision (Hawkins & Weis; Simons et al., 1988). A

general theme associated with most theories is that family strain or disorganization

can produce a rejection of societal norms that in turn leads to problem behaviors,

such as bonding with deviant peers and experimentation with cigarettes (Petraitis

et al., 1995). Some aspects of family bonding may produce a rejection of societal

norms (e.g., family disorganization and unrealistic achievement expectations), while

others may cause bonding with deviant peers (e.g., relative influence of peers vs.

family and a lack of attachment). Other aspects may influence both (e.g., negative