Examining the Effect of Ineffective Parenting and Low Self-Control on Athletes’ PED Use

• Author: Seyyedeh Masoomeh (Shamila) Shadmanfaat,Saeed Kabiri,Christopher M. Donner
• Date: 01 December 2020
• Published date: 01 December 2020
• DOI: 10.1177/1057567719832354
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

Examining the Effect of Ineffective

Parenting and Low Self-Control

on Athletes’ PED Use

Saeed Kabiri

1

,

Seyyedeh Masoomeh (Shamila) Shadmanfaat

1

,

and Christopher M. Donner

2

Abstract

The prevalence of performance-enhancing drug (PED) use at different levels of professional sport

has become an important social issue, particularly when considering recent high-profile incidents

from professional sports and the Olympics. Due to the myriad of individual, team, and sociopolitical

consequences that can stem from PED use, it becomes critical to study the etiology of PED

involvement among athletes regarding this deviant behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general

theory of crime is one such theory that may aid in explaining this phenomenon. As such, the main

purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between effective parenting, self-control,

and athletes’ use of banned PEDs. Survey data from 784 professional athletes in Iran were collected,

and the findings indicated that ineffective parenting, low self-control capacity, and self-control desire

had significant effects on PED use. In addition, moderation effects and gender analyses were

examined. Specific findings, policy implications, and study limitations are discussed.

Keywords

effective parenting, self-control, performance-enhancing drugs, professional athletes

The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) is not a new problem in sports, but it is one

that can carry significant consequences for the individual athlete, team, nation, and global

community. One of the hallmark cornerstones of sports—and competition more generally—is

fair play. There is an implicit assumption when an athlete and/or team competes that there is an

even playing field. That both sides are playing by the rules and letting their natural talent

dictate the outcome of the match. Athletes are supposed to engage in their sport in profes sional

and ethical ways, and the fans who support them expect nothing less. Given the cu rrent social

climate—coupled with an ever-increasing call for public scrutiny and accountability—the

1

University of Guilan, Rasht, Gilan, Iran

2

Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Corresponding Author:

Christopher M. Donner, Loyola University Chicago, Lake Shore Campus 1032 W. Sheridan Ave., Chicago, IL 60660, USA.

Email: cdonner@luc.edu

International CriminalJustice Review

2020, Vol. 30(4) 421-447

ª2019 Georgia State University

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DOI: 10.1177/1057567719832354

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topics of fair play and PEDs are at the forefront of the world’s attention. Thus, it is important

to investigate the correlates of banned PED use, so that governing bodies of sports can be in a

better position to address the problem.

One such correlate that is worthy of empirical scrutiny in this context is low self-control. Gott-

fredson and Hirschi’s (1990) general theory of crime posits that low self-control (LSC) can explain a

wide variety of deviant behavior. Moreover, low self-control has previously been identified in the

literature as a robust predictor ofgeneral criminal behavior (e.g.,Pratt & Cullen, 2000), substance use

in the general population (e.g., Ford & Blumenstein, 2013), and PED use among athletes (e.g., Chan

et al., 2015; Kabiri et al., 2018). This latter line of research has provides some preliminary evidence

that there is a statistical relationship between low self-control and sport doping. However, no study to

date of which we are aware has investigated the development of self-controlin those individuals who

become athletes and the subsequent relationship that self-control has to PED use.

To that end, and in building upon previous research, this study contributes to the literature by

testing the theoretical sequence linking effective parenting, self-control, and the use of banned PEDs

among athletes. More specifically, structural equation modeling is used to investigate whether self-

control mediates the relationship between effective parenting and PED use in a sample (n¼784) of

Iranian athletes. Additionly, the study explores the effects of the self-control model on PED use

among male and female athletes through a gender-based approach.

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

The General Theory of Crime

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) general theory of crime is one of the most scrutinized—and

validated—theories in criminology (e.g., Pratt & Cullen, 2000; Vazsonyi, Mikuska, & Kelley,

2017). According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), people are naturally selfish and hedonistic.

That is, they pursue activities that benefit them. In order to refrain from beneficial—yet, deviant—

behavior, one must have an individual or societal control placed upon them. Accordingly, Gott-

fredson and Hirschi’s (1990) theory centers on the concept of self-control, which refers to people’s

differential propensity to avoid deviant activities. More specifically, they define self-control as the

ability to avoid behaviors whose long-term costs exceed their immediate rewards.

Alternatively, people withlow self-control are impulsive,present minded, riskseeking, and quick to

anger; have a low tolerance for frustration; and are less able to delay immediate gratification. In the

present context, although low self-control individuals easily recognize the benefits of their deviant

behavior, like prohibited PED use, they have problems in evaluating the potential long-term conse-

quences. Therefore, the likelihood of being involvedin deviant behavior is greater forlow self-control

individualsbecause they are focused on the benefits of the behaviorrather than the possible costs(e.g.,

Nofziger& Rosen, 2017).This premise has beenwell-documentedin the literature acrossmany different

samples and dependent variables (formeta-analyses, see Pratt & Cullen,2000; Vazsonyi et al., 2017).

Although the link between low self-control and deviant behavior is well established, the body of

research examining the development of self-control is less voluminous and less clear. According to

Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), self-control is acquired during childhood socialization, which

primarily occurs through effective parenting. The theorists credit their parental management hypoth-

esis to the work of Patterson (1980). His research suggests that children participate in antisocial

behaviors due, in large part, to the inability of primary caregivers to manage their children effec-

tively. He suggests that parents who care about their children will monitor them closely, identify

antisocial behavior, and correct the deviant behavior if—and when—it occurs.

1

There is considerable research supporting Gottfredson and Hirschi’s parental management

hypothesis (e.g., Gibson, Sullivan, Jones, & Piquero, 2010; Hay, 2001; McKee, 2012; Xu, Farver,

422 International Criminal Justice Review 30(4)