Does National Culture Influence Global Policy Diffusion: Evidence From Gender Mainstreaming Policy Using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)

• Published date: 01 August 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/00953997231162548
• Author: Jing He
• Date: 01 August 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/00953997231162548

Administration & Society

2023, Vol. 55(7) 1334 –1368

© The Author(s) 2023

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DOI: 10.1177/00953997231162548

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Article

Does National Culture

Influence Global Policy

Diffusion: Evidence From

Gender Mainstreaming

Policy Using Qualitative

Comparative Analysis

(QCA)

Jing He1

Abstract

This study aims to pinpoint the combinations of national cultural traits

that influence the global diffusion of gender mainstreaming. First, it updates

national culture indices using factor analysis. Then, the study employs fuzzy-

set QCA to identify potential configurations in line with theories of cultural

contingency. A sample of 41 countries is examined. I find that current

diffusion requires a non-Islamic environment, while a high level of autonomy,

weak uncertainty avoidance, and gender quotas are sufficient for gender

mainstreaming. This study serves as the starting point for further research

on the relationship between national culture and the diffusion of gender

mainstreaming policy.

Keywords

gender mainstreaming, policy diffusion, global study, Fuzzy-set QCA

1Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA

Corresponding Author:

Jing He, Florida State University, 627 Bellamy Building, Tallahassee, FL 32306-1058, USA.

Email: jh19bb@fsu.edu

1162548AAS0010.1177/00953997231162548Administration & SocietyHe

research-article2023

He 1335

Introduction

Policy diffusion is not new to scholars of gender politics and comparative

feminist policy (Skocpol et al., 1993; Zippel, 2006). For instance, Katzenstein

and Mueller (1987) stressed the importance of the women’s movement in the

diffusion of feminist ideas in the United States and Europe, while other

scholars focused on the impact of international organizations on feminist

policy (Berkovitch, 1999; Boyle & Preves, 2000). However, virtually no

previous research has examined the influence of national culture on the

worldwide diffusion of gender policy. Therefore, this study attempts to

address this lacuna. Even though culture has been identified as a component

in several diffusion studies (Cunningham, 1995; Goodman et al., 1994), few

have given detailed evaluations of the link between policy diffusion and

culture. One reason is that culture is difficult to quantify accurately. Another

crucial factor is that certain cultural factors do not alter over time (i.e., it can

be considered a constant). Hence, standard quantitative approaches may not

be optimal for evaluating culture; therefore, a new method is required if we

wish to investigate the relationship between national culture and policy dif-

fusion in greater depth. Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) is a poten-

tial solution combining quantitative and qualitative methods. Ragin (1987)

characterizes it as “variable-/case-oriented.” The study utilized fuzzy set

qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), which allowed me to determine

the cumulative effect of various cultural factors on the diffusion of gender

mainstreaming policy.

The study here explores the research question: Is national culture a neces-

sary and / or sufficient condition for the diffusion of gender mainstreaming

policy in the global context? by looking at 41 countries across the world. For

each country ( case) I examined:

(1) The diffusion of gender mainstreaming policy.

(2) The different values in national culture.

(3) Other possible conditions that could be important.

For the third item, the analysis focuses on conditions that scholarship con-

siders important (Duverger, 1955; Krook, 2007): gender quotas (an institu-

tional variable) and the dominant religion (a religious variable.

Gender mainstreaming, the focal gender policy, can be described as “the

process of assessing the implication for women and men of any planned

action, including legislation, policies, or programs, in all areas and at all

levels” (1997; agreed conclusions of ECOSOC1). In other words, it is a long-

term or systematic institutional approach for promoting or producing gender

1336 Administration & Society 55(7)

equality as a policy outcome or the most “modern” approach to gender

equality (Berger, 2007; Daly, 2005; Heikkinen et al., 2012). Although some

scholars worry that gender mainstreaming is “under-developed as a concept”

and still lacks elaboration on some fundamentals (Daly, 2005), in recent

years, prompted in part by global conferences sponsored by the United

Nations (UN) and the gender policies of the European Union (EU), myriad

state and non-state actors around the globe have created working coalitions to

leverage national-level reform efforts (True & Mintrom, 2001).

The findings here suggest that religion has a notably negative influence

on the diffusion of gender equality policies. In particular, countries domi-

nated by Islam are reluctant to embrace gender equality policies. In addi-

tion, three pathways of national cultural values impact the diffusion of

gender mainstreaming policy in different countries; a high degree of auton-

omyis a sufficient condition in all three pathways. While the religious fac-

tor inhibits diffusion of gender policies, some national cultural values

support diffusion. The results point to the complexity of building a theory

linking national culture and global gender policy diffusion. Overall, national

culture had a considerable impact on the global diffusion of gender main-

streaming policy.

Theoretical Framework

This study investigates the conditions of national culture by integrating

Hofstede’s indices and Schwartz’s cultural values, an institutional factor

(gender quotas), and a religious factor (the dominant religion) better to more

fully understand the global diffusion of gender mainstreaming policy. In

addition, institutional and religious factors were incorporated to help explore

how diverse values of national cultures might promote or hinder the diffusion

of gender policy. Based on existing research, it is anticipated that these fac-

tors would affect the diffusion of gender mainstreaming policy either sepa-

rately or through their interaction. Figure 1 provides a visualization of this

framework. Specifically, it indicates that each of these conditions has sub-

stantial effects on gender mainstreaming policy.

Theoretical Basis: Cultural Contingency Theory

Based on Rogers’s (1995) theory of innovation diffusion, a person’s beliefs

can affect his or her attitudes toward innovation, which drive the entire

diffusion process. In accordance with this idea, I hypothesize that global

policy diffusion is intimately related to national culture since it affects a

society’s shared values.