Cultural Links to Adolescent Weapon Carrying and Weapon Use

• Published date: 01 June 2018
• Date: 01 June 2018
• DOI: 10.1177/1057567717723431
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

Cultural Links to Adolescent

Weapon Carrying and Weapon

Use: A Cross-National Study

Lacey N. Wallace

1

Abstract

Although existing cross-cultural studies of adolescence have focused on topics including fighting,

bullying, and gangs, little cross-national research has centered on weapon carrying. However,

weapon carrying among youth has been identified as a worldwide concern, with significant var-

iation by nation and region. This variation is not well understood. This article investigates the

nation-level cultural and contextual determinants of adolescent weapon carrying, specifically

focusing on human development, governmental corruption, and a nation’s orientation toward

violence. Data are drawn from 27 countries in the International Self-Report Delinquency Study,

Wave Two. Analys es use multileve l logistic and ordered logistic regression models to assess

associations with weapon carrying frequency, likelihood of carrying a weapon with friends, and age

of weapon carrying onset. Results show that residing in a nation with less corruption is associated

with a decrease in weapon carrying frequency, a later age of onset, and a lower likelihood of

carrying a weapon with friends. Mixed results were found for interactions with a nation’s

orientation toward violence. Possible explanations for these results, practical implications, and

directions for future research are discussed.

Keywords

cross-national, violence, weapon carrying, adolescence, corruption

In 2012, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2013) estimated that 437,000 deaths

worldwide were the result of intentional homicide. This figure equated to a global homicide rate of

6.2 per 100,000 population, with regional rates ranging from 2.9 in Asia to 16.3 in the Americas

(United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013). These deaths were concentrated among youth

and young adults. Roughly 8%of the homicides in 2012 involved victims under age 18; more than

half involved a victim under age 30 (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013). Across age-

groups, firearms were the most widely used instrument in intentional homicides. Globally, 41%of

homicides were committed with a firearm in 2012 (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,

1

Department of Criminal Justice, Penn State Altoona, Altoona, PA, USA

Corresponding Author:

Lacey N. Wallace, Department of Criminal Justice, Penn State Altoona, 101G Cypress Building, 3000 Ivyside Park, Altoona,

PA 16601, USA.

Email: lno106@psu.edu

International CriminalJustice Review

2018, Vol. 28(2) 118-135

ª2017 Georgia State University

Reprints and permission:

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DOI: 10.1177/1057567717723431

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2013). As with homicide overall, youth were disproportionately affected by firearm-involved homi-

cides, suicides, and injuries (Cukier & Chapdelaine, 2001).

A substantial amount of violent crime against youth is committed by youth offenders. Youth

under age 18, for example, were the primary offenders in 43%of violent crimes with juvenile

victims in the United States in 2009 and 2010 (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Preven-

tion, 2014). A similar trend was observed in Europe (Pfeiffer, 1998). For this reason, youth violence

and injury prevention require a thorough understanding of the circumstances in which youth,

themselves, are likely to engage in violence. To this end, existing cross-cultural studies have focused

on topics including fighting (Pickett et al., 2005; Smith-Khuri et al., 2004), bullying (Craig et al.,

2009), and gangs (Esbensen & Weerman, 2005), among others. Although often co-occurring with

some of these behaviors, little cross-national research has centered on weapon carrying.

This article investigates the cultural and contextual determinants of adolescent weapon carrying.

The term weapon is used here to refer to an object designed or used to inflict body harm; the term is

not restricted to firearms. Weapon carrying, when defined this way, is not a rare event. In a study of

youth in early to mid-adolescence in 35 countries, between 6 and 12%of youth reported carrying a

weapon in the past 30 days (Pickett et al., 2005). These percentages varied substantially by

country and region. The present study identifies elements of national culture (propensity toward

violence) and national context (development, corruption) associated with variation in frequency, age

of onset, and social context of adolescent weapon carrying.

This investigation builds on existing research in several key ways. First, it moves beyond an

examination of prevalence (Pickett et al., 2005) to investigate why weapon carrying behavior may

vary so much cross-culturally. In doing so, this study can address the degree to which national

context and culture interact with individual characteristics to predict behavior. The World Health

Organization (2009) has found that cultural and social norm s, such as community tolerance of

violence, can support and encourage violence. Worldwide, programs like bystander intervention

training, “speak out” campaigns, and public advertising have proven successful in altering norms

that support a variety of violent behaviors (World Health Organization, 2009). These programs are

often targeted at specific demographic groups known to be at high risk. To this end, knowing which

groups are at highest risk for offending, and within which contexts, can help focus programming for

weapon carrying. Second, this article uses data from 27 countries with varying levels of develop-

ment rather than relying only on data collected from a small set of nations (Broidy et al., 2003). This

inclusion not only incorporates greater variation in culture and context but permits greater statistical

power for an investigation of multilevel effects on individual behavior. Lastly, this article considers

the term weapon broadly, as weapon carrying is more common than firearm carrying specifically.

Why Youth Carry Weapons

A common correlate of adolescent weapon carrying is gang affiliation. Lizotte, Krohn, Howell,

Tobin, and Howard (2000) examined illegal gun carrying among young, urban males in the United

States using the Rochester Youth Development Survey. Findings indicated that gang affiliation was

strongly predictive of gun carrying in early adolescence (Lizotte, Krohn, Howell, Tobin, & Howard,

2000). For older adolescents, heavy drug use and involvement in the drug trade, factors known to

correlate with gang membership, were significant predictors of gun carrying (Lizotte et al., 2000).

Existing literature found that younger adolescents were more likely to carry weapons than older

adolescents (Kulig, Valentine, Griffith, & Ruthazer, 1998). In a study of Czech, Russian, and U.S.

adolescents, substance use was also associated with male weapon carrying at school in all three

countries (Stickley et al., 2015). In Europe, membership in a deviant peer group, the equivalent of a

gang, was found to be associated with a variety of delinquent behaviors, including weapon carrying,

in a study by Gatti, Haymoz, and Schadee (2011). Research with a sample of Finnish adolescents

Wallace 119