A Cross-National Spatial Study of Crime Using Variables Informed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

• Published date: 01 September 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/10575677221125276
• Author: Gretha Groeneveld,Gregory Breetzke
• Date: 01 September 2023
• Subject Matter: Original Articles

A Cross-National Spatial Study

of Crime Using Variables

Informed by the International

Organization for

Standardization (ISO)

Gretha Groeneveld

1

and Gregory Breetzke

1

Abstract

Cross-national spatial studies of crime are rare. Reasons are manifold but include the lack of stand-

ardization of variables across, often diverse, contexts. In this study, we propose a potential solution

to this impasse byexamining the spatial causes of violent crime across two axiomatically differentcon-

texts: Khayelitsha (in South Africa) and Fort Lauderdale (in the United States). In a departure from

previous research, our variable selection for this study is guided by the Organization for

Standardization (ISO) standards, specif‌ically ISO 37210 indicators—which relate to the Sustainable

Development of Communities. We use these standards to operationalize the seminal spatial theory of

crime, namely the social disorganization theory.Results show some similarity in the spatial risk factors

associated with violent crime. We conclude by arguing for the benef‌its of using standardized variables

in cross-national spatial crime research but also highlight the challenges of such an approach.

Keywords

standardization, international organization for standardization, South Africa, social disorganization

Introduction

The social disorganization theory of Shaw and McKay (1942) is arguably the key theory of crime

and place with a number of researchers having tested its applicability across a wide range of contexts

(Andresen, 2006; Bellair & Browning, 2010; Breetzke, 2010; da Silva, 2014; Kingston et al., 2009;

Strom & MacDonald, 2007). There are however numerous inconsistencies in the operationalization

of the theory with researchers using a plethora of different variables (and/or combination of vari-

ables) to represent the four central tenets of the theory namely socio-economic deprivation, family

disruption, residential mobility and ethnic/racial heterogeneity. For example, residential mobility

has been measured as the percentage renting (Law & Quick, 2013), the percentage that own their

1

Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Corresponding Author:

Gregory Breetzke, Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria,

South Africa.

Email: greg.breetzke@up.ac.za

Original Article

International Criminal Justice Review

2023, Vol. 33(3) 313-329

© 2022 Georgia State University

Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/10575677221125276

journals.sagepub.com/home/icj

home (Martinez et al., 2010; Mazerolle et al., 2010) or based on the length of residence in the same

house for a period of time, usually over 5 years (Law & Quick, 2013; Martinez et al., 2010; Roh &

Choo, 2008; Sun et al., 2004). Likewise, family disruption has been def‌ined as the percentage female-

headed households (Lanier & Huff-Corzine, 2006; Roh & Choo, 2008; Strom & MacDonald, 2007),

the percentage of single-parent households (Law & Quick, 2013; Wong, 2011), or the percentage

divorced and/or separated parents (Beaulieu & Messner, 2010; Lowenkamp et al., 2003; Porter &

Purser, 2010), among numerous others.

The non-standardized way in which the central tenets of the social disorganization theory have

been operationalized is problematic as it limits the ability of spatial crime researchers to compare

and benchmark their results with other, particularly international, studies. This is notably relevant

to scholars undertaking spatial crime research in a developing context who would like to test the

applicability of a “Western”theory of crime in their own context and, in doing so, gain a more thor-

ough theoretical understanding of crime and its underlying causes. The practical and policy implica-

tions of being able to suitably compare results across countries is also signif‌icant as many crime

prevention strategies are informed by theory (see Akers, 1973; Brantingham & Brantingham,

1993; Wilson & Kelling, 1982). Given these concerns, several researchers have argued for the

need of a more standardized, or uniform, approach when using “Western”spatial crime theories

as a guiding theoretical framework in their research (Breetzke, 2010; McCall & Nieuwbeerta,

2007; van Wilsem, 2004). One mechanism that allows for the standardization of variables used to

operationalize spatial crime theories such as the social disorganization theory is the standards pro-

duced by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a worldwide federa-

tion of national standards bodies that develop standards on a range of topics that are internationally

agreed upon by experts in their f‌ield. In particular, the ISO 37120 indicators were specif‌ically devel-

oped to assist in the monitoring and evaluation of sustainable development initiatives pertaining to

the environment and contain a number of standards that could potentially be used as proxies for the

central tenets of social disorganization theory. Currently there are no existing international standard-

ized measures allowing for spatial crime comparisons across differing contexts.

In this study, we propose a potential solution to this problem by examining the causes of crime in

two vastly different contexts: Khayelitsha (in South Africa) and Fort Lauderdale (in the United

States) using variables informed by indicators developed by the ISO. In undertaking this analysis,

a city in the Global South (Khayelitsha) can be compared to a city in the Global North (Fort

Lauderdale) in terms of its crime causation, serving as an international benchmark against which

to measure and compare broader levels of urban safety. To our knowledge, this is the f‌irst study

of its kind to directly compare spatial crime patterns and their causes in cities in South Africa and

the United States using a standardized approach.

The ISO and Social Disorganization

Established in 1947, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an independent

and non-governmental organization whose mission is to develop international standards that can

facilitate the exchange of goods and services among its 165-member countries. The ISO has pub-

lished hundreds of standards over the past few decades on a diverse range of topics ranging from

ISO1 which specif‌ies the standard reference temperature for geometrical product specif‌ication and

verif‌ication to ISO4921 which def‌ines terms for basic knitting concepts. The ISO 37100 range of

international standards in particular helps communities adopt strategies to become more sustainable

and resilient. Among the series of standards within this sub-group is the ISO 37120, Sustainable

cities and communities–Indicators for city services and quality of life standard, which outlines

key measurements for evaluating a city’s service delivery and quality of life. This series provides

a list of standardized indicators and outlines a uniform approach on what to measure, and how to

314 International Criminal Justice Review 33(3)