Centrality, Mobility, and Specialization: A Study of Drug Markets in a Non-metropolitan Area in the United Kingdom

• DOI: 10.1177/0022042619891962
• Published date: 01 April 2020
• Author: Laura Baika,Paolo Campana
• Date: 01 April 2020
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042619891962

Journal of Drug Issues

2020, Vol. 50(2) 107 –126

© The Author(s) 2019

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DOI: 10.1177/0022042619891962

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Article

Centrality, Mobility, and

Specialization: A Study of Drug

Markets in a Non-metropolitan

Area in the United Kingdom

Laura Baika1 and Paolo Campana1

Abstract

This article empirically explores the structure and mechanisms underpinning the local drug

markets in a non-metropolitan area in the United Kingdom. It relies on 3 years’ worth of

police records supplemented with qualitative evidence. It shows that, overall, supplying drugs

is a rather fragmented business; yet, there are indications of structural differentiation both in

terms of positions and roles. Furthermore, substantial differences emerge across drug types—

with heroin and cocaine networks showing a higher tendency toward cooperation and group

formation (higher average degree and lower fragmentation). This might be due to a higher need

for protection and more complex supply chains. Drug suppliers tend to specialize in relation

to the Class A drugs, their role in the market, and the territory in which they operate. Finally,

members of organized crime groups possess significantly higher degree centrality than non-

members, suggesting an ability to exert influence on the market.

Keywords

drug supply, centrality, mobility, specialization, organized crime, network analysis

Introduction

The illegal drug trade is a lucrative, well-established market that features prominently on the

global policy agenda (Bonfield, 2011). There is substantial agreement on the negative political,

cultural, and economic effects of the illegal drug trade (Her Majesty’s Government, 2017;

McSweeney et al., 2008). The trade and use of drugs can cause serious harm to communities

through drug-related violence, antisocial behavior, acquisitive crime, and knife and firearms

offenses. For instance, in the United Kingdom, there were 2,000 drug-related deaths recorded by

the British authorities in 2012 (Her Majesty’s Government, 2013). The social and economic costs

of the illegal drug trade are assessed to be £10.7 billion per year, of which just over half (£6 bil-

lion) is ascribed to drug-related acquisitive crime (Her Majesty’s Government, 2017). The U.K.

drug market itself is estimated to be worth around £3.7 billion per year (Her Majesty’s

Government, 2013). In addition, it is reported that around half of all organized crime groups

(OCGs) in the United Kingdom are involved in the drug trade (Her Majesty’s Government,

1University of Cambridge, UK

Corresponding Author:

Paolo Campana, Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge CB3 9DA, UK.

Email: pc524@cam.ac.uk

891962JODXXX10.1177/0022042619891962Journal of Drug IssuesBaika and Campana

research-article2019

108 Journal of Drug Issues 50(2)

2017). However, despite its relevance to large areas of public policy, there is still a paucity of

research into the structure and mechanisms underpinning drug markets and the operations of

drug distribution networks. This is particularly true in the case of the United Kingdom, where the

majority of empirical research on the street-level drug trade is qualitative in nature, typically

employing interviews with convicted drug offenders. However, individual traders often have a

very limited view of the workings of the entire market. In addition, studies analyzing these net-

works have often amalgamated data on different drugs without considering the variances across

markets. Furthermore, past research has typically looked at metropolitan settings, thus overlook-

ing the workings of markets outside large metropolitan areas.

The aim of this article is to expand on the existing literature by empirically investigating the

structure of a local street-level drug market in a midsize non-metropolitan urban area using a

social network analysis approach. This study is supply based, focusing exclusively on the supply

side of the drug trade, as opposed to demand-based studies that focus on how drug users get their

drugs (Potter, 2009). It aims to reconstruct the (offline) drug markets in Newport, Wales (UK),

through the study of crime events as recorded by the Gwent Police Service. The evidence for this

article includes quantitative data on co-participation in crime events as well as intelligence

records on active OCGs. We supplemented this evidence with qualitative interviews with police

officers working with the Gwent Police Service.

The Organization of Drug Markets

An illegal drug market can be defined as a black market devoted to the cultivation, manufacture,

distribution, and sale of drugs that are subject to drug prohibition laws (in line with Unodc.org,

2018). The definition of illegal drugs varies across countries due to different drug prohibition

laws. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the majority of illegal drugs are controlled under the

Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and categorized into three separate groups of Classes A, B, and C, with

Class A inducing the most serious punishments and fines (Table 1).1

The drug seizure figures indicate that cannabis is the most seized drug in England and Wales,

followed by cocaine. Benzodiazepine is the most seized Class C drug across England and Wales

(Broadfield & Marshall, 2017; DrugWise, 2018).

How are these drugs supplied? In recent years, a growing body of research has investigated

and explored the diverse structures of (offline) drug distribution systems, and how such systems

operate at local, regional, national, and international levels (Dorn et al., 2005). Past research has

commonly found that drug trade networks differ in their size and complexity, ranging from

Table 1. The Most Common Illegal Drugs in the United Kingdom by Class.

Class A Class B Class C

Cocaine

Crack cocaine

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Heroin

LSD

Magic mushrooms

Methadone

Methamphetamine (crystal meth)

Amphetamines

Barbiturates

Cannabis

Codeine

Ketamine

Methylphenidate (Ritalin)

Synthetic cannabinoids

Synthetic cathinones (e.g.,

mephedrone, methoxetamine)

Anabolic steroids

Benzodiazepines (diazepam)

Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB)

Gamma-butyrolactone (GBL)

Khat

Piperazines (BZP)

Source. Gov.uk. (2018).

Note. LSD = lysergic acid diethylamide.