Wounded knee: the site of the bloody conflict 125 years ago between U.S. forces and the Lakota Sioux, the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota is today one of the poorest places in America.

• Author: Elder, Robert K.
• Position: TIMES PAST 1890

After the roar of the guns stopped and the smoke lifted, the snow was red.

Near Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, scores of Lakota Sioux Indians * lay dead--most of them unarmed women and children. Some estimates put the death toll near 300, others near 150. The U.S. soldiers who fired on them with large, mule-drawn cannons counted 25 among their own dead. More on both sides would eventually succumb to their wounds.

"And I can see that something else died there in the bloody mud, and was buried in the blizzard," said survivor Nicholas Black Elk. "A people's dream died there. It was a beautiful dream."

What happened at Wounded Knee 125 years ago, on Dec. 29, 1890, has been referred to as a tragedy, a battle, and-most widely--a massacre. To some, it marked the symbolic end of American Indians' armed resistance against the U.S. government and cemented policies that contributed to the plight of many tribes today that struggle with poverty, unemployment, and other social ills (see "Pine Ridge Today, " p. 20).

"It was a climax to what had happened to virtually all tribes in the West after all their land was taken from them through the treaty system," says Jerome A. Greene, author of American Carnage: Wounded Knee, 1890. "In their consciousness, it lingers even to this day. They live under the shadow of Wounded Knee, they really do. It's an untreated sore."

When Christopher Columbus landed in the present-day Bahamas in 1492, Native Americans--whom Columbus called "Indians" because he thought he'd landed in the East Indies--numbered between 2 million and 15 million (see Timeline, p. 20). Diseases brought from Europe, like measles and smallpox, devastated native populations who didn't have immunity, wiping out whole tribes. As Europeans pushed westward, white settlers and native tribes created alliances, fought, and sometimes negotiated fragile peace treaties. By the mid-1800s, many of the eastern tribes had been forcibly removed from their lands to reservations--parcels of land set aside for them by the U.S. government.

The tribes were promised security, land, and annual payments in a system of forced assimilation aimed at converting them into farmers as well as, in many cases, Christians. But food and supplies pledged to the tribes often arrived late or not at all, and the U.S. broke treaties, for example taking land after gold discoveries in California and South Dakota's Black Hills.

Tensions between the Sioux tribes and the U.S. government reached a boiling point in 1862, when the Sioux attacked and killed hundreds of settlers in what's known as the Dakota War or the Sioux Uprising. In its aftermath, the tribe was expelled from Minnesota--and a $25 bounty was offered for the scalp of any Sioux found within state borders.

Sitting Bull vs. Custer

Meanwhile, on the Montana Plains, a leader had risen: Sitting Bull. In 1876, the revered Lakota who had resisted the U.S. government the longest and with the most success defeated and killed General George Custer and his regiment in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana.

But on Dec. 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was shot and killed by police sent to arrest him for his alleged support of the Ghost Dance--a new Native American religion. U.S. officials feared the religion because it prophesied that Indian ancestors would return to earth to reclaim their homelands. Though government officials said Sitting Bull's death was an arrest gone awry, many Lakota saw it as an assassination to avenge the killing of General Custer.

In the aftermath of the killing, some of Sitting Bull's followers joined Chief Spotted Elk, who called a secret meeting on the Pine Ridge Reservation to plan the tribe's next moves. Suspicious of their motives, the U.S. government sent in the 7th Cavalry to disarm the group.

What happened next isn't entirely clear. By some accounts, a Lakota's gun fired, providing the spark that turned into a flame, as soldiers fired into the crowd.

"The guns poured in 2-pound explosive shells at the rate of nearly 50 per minute, mowing down everything alive," wrote one historian. A firefight ensued between the soldiers and the remaining warriors as thick smoke erupted from the guns. A Lakota named Bertha Kills Close to Lodge, who was then 17, remembered "smoke so severe" that she could barely see.

When Black Elk, a Lakota Sioux leader, rode into the melee to help, he saw the bodies of "men and women and children ... heaped and scattered all over."

A general reported that "a large number of women and children who tried to escape by running and scattering over the prairie were hunted down and killed." One historian wrote that so many women and children were killed far from the center of the action that the scene looked "as though blind rage had been at work. "

On the site of Wounded Knee, 147 Lakota were buried in a mass grave. Many Lakota viewed the violence as further revenge for the defeat of General Custer--and a final blow in a series of bloody conflicts with Native Americans.

"They wanted to eradicate us from the earth," says Myron Pourier, 45, a great-great-grandson of Black Elk.

Wounded Knee, which solidified the reservation system, still looms large for Native Americans. Today, there are 566 federally recognized American Indian tribes in the U.S., including Alaska Natives, and about 310 federally recognized Indian reservations, according to the Bureau of Indian Affairs. After much struggle for rights and recognition, the tribes are considered sovereign nations but are bound by some federal, state, and local laws.

Poverty & Casinos

But because many reservations are isolated enclaves far from economic opportunity, nearly 30 percent of American Indians and Alaska Natives live in poverty. Pine Ridge, the site of Wounded Knee, is one of the nation's poorest places, with an average life expectancy of 50, compared with 78 for the rest...