Violent Offending, Nonviolent Offending, and General Delinquency: Exploring the Criminogenic Risk Factors of Hong Kong Male and Female Adolescents

• DOI: 10.1177/0306624X19881917
• Date: 01 July 2021
• Author: Heng Choon (Oliver) Chan
• Published date: 01 July 2021
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19881917

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2021, Vol. 65(9) 975 –998

© The Author(s) 2019

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X19881917

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Article

Violent Offending, Nonviolent

Offending, and General

Delinquency: Exploring the

Criminogenic Risk Factors

of Hong Kong Male and

Female Adolescents

Heng Choon (Oliver) Chan1

Abstract

Limited information is known about the offending phenomenon of Hong Kong

adolescents, specifically from a theoretical standpoint. Using a sample of 892 secondary

school students, this study aims to explore the criminogenic risk factors of juvenile

delinquency in Hong Kong adolescents. Grounded in the theoretical propositions of

mainstream criminological theories (i.e., self-control, social control, social learning,

general strain, and routine activity), the adolescents’ types of delinquent behavior

(i.e., violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency) are examined. Findings indicate

that male adolescents reported significantly higher levels of violent, nonviolent, and

general delinquency than female adolescents. Relative to females, males are also

reported significantly higher levels of pro-violence attitudes, deviant peer influence,

alcohol and drug use, and perceived neighborhood disorganization. However, female

adolescents are found to have higher levels of self-control, social bonding, and negative

temperament than their male counterparts. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that

deviant peer influence in addition to alcohol and drug use is found to be general risk

factors for engaging in all sorts of delinquent activity. A high level of pro-violence

attitudes is significantly associated with violent offending, while low self-control is a

significant predictor of nonviolent offending and general delinquency. Social bonding,

negative temperament, and perceived neighborhood disorganization are found to be

important factors associated with general delinquency. Implications of the findings

1City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR

Corresponding Author:

Heng Choon (Oliver) Chan, Associate Professor of Criminology, Teaching Laboratory for Forensics and

Criminology, Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon,

Hong Kong SAR.

Email: oliverchan.ss@cityu.edu.hk

881917IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X19881917International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyChan

research-article2019

976 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 65(9)

are offered to address the adolescents’ criminogenic risk factors and prevent their

propensity to engage in violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency.

Keywords

violent offending, nonviolent offending, general delinquency, delinquent behavior,

adolescent, Hong Kong

Introduction

Juvenile delinquency, regardless of its classification as either violent or nonviolent,

has always been a global problem that threatens the social stability of a society. It has

arguably reached an alarming level in Hong Kong—a special administrative region

(SAR) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Males and females aged under 20

were estimated to comprise 15.4% of the total Hong Kong population in 2018 (Hong

Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2019). It is noteworthy that the minimum age

of criminal liability in Hong Kong has been raised from 7 to 10 years with effect from

July 1, 2003. Based on police figures, juveniles (aged 10-20 years; juvenile and youth

delinquents in Hong Kong are referred to those who are aged 10-15 years and 16-20

years, respectively) who were apprehended in 2018 comprised 5.1% of the total arrests

in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Police Force, 2019).

In Hong Kong, the annual number of juvenile and youth crime arrests has risen steeply

over the last three decades, with its peak in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Hong Kong

Police Force, 2019). According to police statistics, the arrest rate for juvenile delinquency

(i.e., 7-15 years of age) was 212 per 100,000 residents in 1976, and this rate has increased

rapidly to its peak of 962 per 100,000 residents in 1989. This is because of the fact that the

minimum age of criminal responsibility in Hong Kong has been changed in 2003 from 7

to 10 years. Similarly, the arrest rate for youth delinquency (i.e., 16-20 years of age) has

also risen since the mid-1970s (973 per 100,000 residents in 1976) to its peak in the mid-

1990s (2,203 per 100,000 residents in 1994). Nonetheless, a steady decline in both juve-

nile and youth arrests have been documented over the past 10 years (9,008 juveniles aged

10-20 years were arrested in 2008, 6,522 juveniles in 2012, and 2,769 juveniles in 2018).

Despite this declining trend in the juvenile arrest rate in Hong Kong, more research is

desirable to further understand what makes these Hong Kong adolescents become

involved in juvenile delinquency. Specifically, past studies indicate that male and female

adolescents are anticipated to possess different levels of criminogenic risk factors to

delinquency. Hence, it is worthwhile to further explore the juvenile delinquency phenom-

enon in Hong Kong, particularly from the perspective of mainstream criminological theo-

ries. Findings of this study will certainly add to our knowledge in this area and contribute

to the repertoire of literature on this topic.

Theoretical Background

During the past half-century, different theoretical perspectives have been adopted to

explain juvenile delinquency and adult offending behavior. A number of mainstream