Unpacking the Theory of African American Offending: A Qualitative Exploration of Racial Socialization Processes and Their Effects on African American Male College Students

Published date01 January 2022
AuthorBen Feldmeyer,Iman Said
Date01 January 2022
DOI10.1177/2153368719861742
Subject MatterArticles
Unpacking the Theory
of African American
Offending: A Qualitative
Exploration of Racial
Socialization Processes
and Their Effects
on African American Male
College Students
Iman Said
1
and Ben Feldmeyer
2
Abstract
In 2011, Dr. James Unnever and Dr. Shaun Gabbidon introduced a Theory of African
American Offending, which posits that African American offending is motivated in part
by common experiences of racism. They argue that these experiences contribute to
a shared worldview that includes both an accumulation of bad feelings toward
pro-social institutions and legal cynicism toward the justice system, leading to
decreased social bonds and a greater predilection toward delinquency. They also
suggest that racial socialization can help to mitigate these effects of racism. Previous
studies have found support for this idea, but few have examined the mechanisms by
which racial socialization takes place. The current study uses qualitative interviews to
explore the racial socialization process among a sample of Black male college students
in a Midwestern public university. The findings reveal that racial socialization pro-
cesses vary widely among male college students in terms of content (police contact,
dating, safety), sources (parents, grandparents, peers, and other adult role models),
timing, and the effect on social bonds to White-dominated institutions. Implications
of the findings for the research on race, racial socialization, social problems, and
criminological theory are presented and discussed.
1
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
2
School of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
Corresponding Author:
Iman Said, Pennsylvania State University, 1001 Oswald Tower, State College, PA 16801, USA.
Email: ixs228@psu.edu
Race and Justice
ªThe Author(s) 2019
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/2153368719861742
journals.sagepub.com/home/raj
2022, Vol. 12(1) 98–\ 125
Article
Keywords
critical race theory, criminological theories, criminal profiling, race and policing,
driving while Black (DWB), racial profiling, bias in the criminal justice system, race
and public opinion, treatment by the police, African/Black Americans, race/ethnicity
In their 2011 book, entitled A Theory of African American Offending: Race, Racism,
and Crime, James Unnever and Shaun Gabbidon introduced the Theory of African
American Offending, a theory that has since received considerable scholarly attention.
In their theory, Unnever and Gabbidon (2011, p. 172) suggest that African Americans
experience unparalleled levels of discrimination and racism within American insti-
tutions (such as the criminal justice system, schools, and the labor force), which
contributes to a “unique worldview” and ultimately to increased risk of criminal
offending. Specifically, they argue that pervasive discrimination generates a
“reservoir of bad will,” mistrust, and alienation toward mainstream U.S. institutions
among African American populations. As a result, African Americans may begin to
disassociate or detach from these institutions, inhibiting success opportunities, and
contributing to increased criminal offending. Specifically, some evidence suggests
that racial discrimination can increase the risk of offending among African American
students by increasing the possibility that they will drop out of school early (Unnever,
Cullen, & Barnes, 2017). However, Unnever and Gabbidon’s (2011) theory proposes
that this process may be mitigated by preparing children for experiences of racial
discrimination and prejudice, a process known as racial socialization, wherein
thoughts, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes regarding race and racism are communicated
across generations (Burt, Lei, & Simons, 2017; Hughes, Smith, et al., 2006; Lesane-
Brown, 2006). In fact, their theory suggests that racial socialization may be one of the
primary mechanisms for insulating African American youth from the discrimination
and prejudice they uniquely face and for minimizing its potential impact on social
bonds and crime.
Although scholarship on the Theory of African American Offending is still in its
nascent stages, research to date offers some support for this framework. Psychology
literature provides some exploration of the racial socialization processes outlined in
the theory. These studies largely focus on juvenile populations and use quantitative
methods to identify the types of messages children receive from their parents (Biafora,
Taylor, Warheit, & Zimmerman, 1993; O’Brien Caughy, O’Campo, Randolph, &
Nickerson, 2002; Constantine & Blackmon, 2002; Frabutt, Walker, & MacKinnon-
Lewis, 2002; Hughes, 2003; Hughes & Chen, 1999; Hughes & Johnson, 2001;
Johnson, 2001; McKay, Atkins, Hawkins, Brown, & Lynn, 2003). Notably, this lit-
erature focuses primarily on the parent–child relationship, with little attention to how
other individuals might influence the socialization process. Within criminological
literature, research also indicates that racial socialization plays a key role in promoting
social bonds by helping African Americans manage experiences of racism and avoid
criminal activity (Gabbidon & Greene, 2018; Gaston & Doherty, 2018). Specifically,
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Said and Feldmeyer

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