Understanding Collaboration in Disaster Assistance Networks: Organizational Homophily or Resource Dependency?

• Author: Ann-Margaret Esnard,Alka Sapat,Aleksey Kolpakov
• Published date: 01 November 2019
• Date: 01 November 2019
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0275074019861347
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074019861347

American Review of Public Administration

2019, Vol. 49(8) 957 –972

© The Author(s) 2019

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DOI: 10.1177/0275074019861347

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Article

Introduction

Disaster response and recovery have historically involved

the participation of the nonprofit sector working in concert

with government. Nongovernmental organization (NGO)

assistance is arguably even more important when state capac-

ity is weakened by crises, disaster, or the lack of resources.

As the impact of disasters has grown, so too has the role

played by local nonprofits or NGOs and international non-

governmental organizations (INGOs). There has been a

growing body of research that has been undertaken on col-

laboration during emergency relief and response processes

(Bevc, Barlau, & Passanante, 2009; Celik & Corbacioglu,

2010; Comfort, 2007; Kapucu, 2006; Kapucu, Arslan, &

Demiroz, 2010; Kapucu & Hu, 2016; Moore, Eng, & Daniel,

2003; Thompson, 2010) in response to domestic events.

However, less attention has been paid to partnerships and

levels of collaboration between INGOs, local NGOs, and

faith-based organizations (FBOs).1 These collaborations are

particularly important in light of the growing numbers of

NGOs that are involved in response and recovery activities

following disasters. The lack of collaboration and the com-

petition for resources among NGOs can also have serious

implications for disaster recovery. However, despite the

growing importance of studying collaboration or the lack

thereof among NGOs, there are a number of questions that

remain unanswered in extant research: To what extent do

INGOs providing assistance during the post-disaster recov-

ery period collaborate with each other? What is the nature of

collaboration between international and local NGOs and

among FBOs? Does organizational homophily prevail? Do

organizational incentives to partner and collaborate stem

from a need to acquire resources?

In this article, we seek to answer these questions by ana-

lyzing collaboration on disaster recovery assistance projects

among key NGOs in Haiti in the 3-year period following the

2010 earthquake.2 The devastation following the earthquake

in Haiti and the toll taken on human lives and livelihood,

combined with the response by thousands of NGOs and the

lack of state resources make Haiti a particularly appropriate

setting to study the relationships between NGOs and other

organizations.

We begin by reviewing key theoretical concepts from

research on collaboration in disaster management, which

reveal some interesting insights and highlight gaps in our

knowledge of NGO partnerships and collaboration. We rely

861347ARPXXX10.1177/0275074019861347The American Review of Public AdministrationSapat et al.

research-article2019

1Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, USA

2Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA

3University of Nevada, Reno, USA

Corresponding Author:

Alka Sapat, Professor, School of Public Administration, Florida Atlantic

University, 777 Glades Road, SO 301B, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0992, USA.

Email: asapat@fau.edu

Understanding Collaboration in Disaster Assistance

Networks: Organizational Homophily or Resource

Dependency?

Alka Sapat1, Ann-Margaret Esnard2, and Aleksey Kolpakov3

Abstract

Greater collaboration among nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) after disasters is important in helping them deliver

services, share information, and avoid resource duplication. Following a disaster, numerous NGOs, including a large number

of faith-based NGOs, typically offer disaster assistance. But to what extent do these NGOs providing disaster assistance

collaborate with each other? Does organizational homophily prevail? Or is the need to acquire resources an incentive for

collaboration? Are collaborations characterized by relationships of dependency? To answer these questions, we analyze

collaboration between international NGOs, local NGOs, faith-based organizations, and other organizations providing disaster

assistance in Haiti in the 3-year period following the 2010 earthquake. Data on these organizations and their networks were

analyzed using social network analysis methods. The major findings are that most organizations collaborate within sectoral

boundaries and that homophily is one of the main drivers of collaboration, illuminating power relationships in disaster

assistance networks.

Keywords

disaster assistance networks, nongovernmental organizations, social network analysis

958 American Review of Public Administration 49(8)

on theories of organizational homophily and resource

dependency to examine the nature of the collaborative rela-

tionships between NGOs. Specifically, we test the extent to

which homophily or resource dependency can explain why

disaster assistance organizations collaborate with each

other. After briefly discussing the case of the Haiti earth-

quake, data on these relationships, including the much-

understudied partnerships between FBOs, are analyzed

using social network analysis (SNA) techniques to deter-

mine the structure and nature of network ties and the nature

of integration and collaboration between these organiza-

tions. We chose to include a focus on FBOs for three rea-

sons. First, similar to other major disasters, a large percentage

of FBOs played a critical role in the aftermath of the Haiti

earthquake. Studying FBO collaborations in Haiti helps in

understanding their importance and power levels vis-à-vis

other organizations in disaster assistance networks. Second,

despite their substantial role in disaster response and recov-

ery, there is very little understanding of how organizational

homophily among FBOs affects their collaborative ties and

connections with other organizations. Although homophily

has been studied as a driver for collaboration in terms of

organizational type or location, previous studies have not

examined how religion-based similarities of FBOs might

play a role in collaboration. Yet, based on a priori theoretical

expectations and qualitative research on transnational FBOs

(Mitchell, 2014a; Pudlo & Ellis, 2018), faith-based status

could be a factor that motivates FBOs in either seeking or

avoiding collaboration. Testing this theoretical expectation

and its level of importance will help shed more light on this

issue and contributes to more nuanced understandings of

organizational homophily given the critical role of these

FBOs. Third, prior research indicates that although there

was collaboration between churches and local FBOs and

with FBO networks and inter-faith coalitions after hurricane

Katrina (Evans, Kromm, & Sturgis, 2008), fewer FBOs

worked with governmental agencies or larger disaster relief

agencies (De Vita et al., 2008; Zakour & Harrell, 2003). Our

research adds to past research by empirically examining col-

laborative ties between FBOs and nongovernmental and

other disaster relief organizations.

Understanding the rationale and types of collaboration

between disaster assistance organizations is particularly

important and relevant, because the type of collaboration can

have important repercussions on response and recovery out-

comes. In addition, this research provides insights on NGO

networks in fragile governance systems such as Haiti.

Understanding how disaster assistance networks can be sus-

tained is vital for mobilizing assets and resources in a timely

manner (capital, workforce, goods, services, knowledge,

etc.). The conclusion discusses the policy repercussions and

implications of the results for disaster response and recovery.

We end with some recommendations to improve disaster

management and recovery processes.

Collaboration in Disaster Management:

Challenges and Outcomes

Collaboration has received a great deal of attention in the

public management literature (Ansell & Gash, 2008; Bingham

& O’Leary, 2008; Kenis & Provan, 2009; Milward & Provan,

1998; Moynihan, 2008; Provan & Kenis, 2008; Provan &

Milward, 1995, 2001). It has also received attention in the

emergency and disaster management literature (Bevc et al.,

2009; Celik & Corbacioglu, 2010; Comfort, 2007; Kapucu,

2006; Kapucu, Arslan, & Demiroz, 2010; Kapucu & Hu,

2016; Moore et al., 2003; Thompson, 2010). For the purposes

of this article, we reviewed the literature to highlight theoreti-

cal concepts from research on NGO collaborations, partner-

ships and networks, and factors which affect post-disaster

recovery outcomes for affected communities.

Collaboration and Partnerships

A key finding in that body of research is that collaboration

and partnerships produce more effective outcomes (Bevc

et al., 2009; Celik & Corbacioglu, 2010; Comfort, 2007;

Moore et al., 2003; Thompson, 2010), with benefits such as

organizational learning, cost savings, or more resources to

organizations (Corbacioglu & Kapucu, 2006; Moynihan,

2008). Inadequate collaboration has been noted as a reason

for negative outcomes for communities, as occurred during

Hurricane Katrina (Cigler, 2007; Comfort, Ko, & Zagorecki,

2004; Kettl, 2006).

Extant research on partnerships and networks in natural

hazards and disaster management has focused on various

challenges and problems in collaboration as well. For

instance, several authors have noted the need for organiza-

tions to communicate their plans and actions adequately and

quickly (Celik & Corbacioglu, 2010; Comfort et al., 2004;

Kapucu, 2006; Petrescu-Prahova & Butts, 2008). Others

have noted how the flow of information among organizations

can hinder collaboration, particularly while providing ser-

vices in an uncertain and complex environment such as dur-

ing disaster response and recovery periods (Moore et al.,

2003; Prizzia, 2008). Trust and the lack of it, along with

common norms, have also been identified as important fac-

tors affecting collaboration (Alexander & Nank, 2009;

Gazley, 2008; Nolte & Boenigk, 2011, 2012; Robinson,

2012).

Social Capital, Collaborative Networks, and

Network Structure

The mutuality of norms and reciprocal relationships, along

with the importance of social capital as it relates to trust have

been emphasized in the broader public management, and

organizational and disaster literature (Aldrich, 2010, 2012;

Brinkerhoff, 2002; Henry, Lubell, & McCoy, 2011;

Nakagawa & Shaw, 2004; Robinson, 2012). More attention