U.S. Floods

• Published date: 01 June 2017
• Date: 01 June 2017
• DOI: 10.1177/0160323X17731890
• Subject Matter: Governance Matters

Governance Matters
State and Local Government Review
2017, Vol. 49(2) 127-139
U.S. Floods: The Necessity
ª The Author(s) 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/0160323X17731890
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Beverly A. Cigler1
Abstract
Floods are the costliest natural hazard events in the United States in terms of lives and property
losses. The financial costs of flood disasters are unsustainable, especially for the national govern-
ment, which assumes the most costs while state and local governments have the greatest ability to
avoid great losses due to their influence over land use, economic policy, and other areas that can
help mitigate floods and reduce the high costs of relief and recovery. This article summarizes the
types, causes, and occurrence of floods in the United States and their unsustainable economic and
social costs. It explains that the growing burden to taxpayers from disaster response and recovery
has resulted in increased interest by national decision makers in shifting more disaster responsi-
bilities and costs to state and local governments. The article reviews the broad tool kit of mitigation
strategies available to local governments and their residents in taking greater responsibility for the
impacts of flood events.
Keywords
floods, natural hazards, mitigation, disaster costs, structural mitigation, nonstructural mitigation, the
intergovernmental paradox of emergency management, NFIP, moral hazard, green infrastructure
A major responsibility of government is the
two years in the 1980s, but there have been
protection of life and property. Among U.S.
about 10 per year since 2010.
disasters stemming from natural occurrences,
U.S. national government spending on
floods are the most costly in terms of lives and
extreme
weather
is
significant—about
property lost and people affected (Stromberg
US$400 per household in an average year.
2007). Between 1900 and 2015, 40 percent of
Events in bad weather years are more costly,
the 35,000 U.S. disaster events were major
for example, US$1,100 per household in
floods and related storms. Over the past fifty
2011. The costs are overwhelmingly for
years, 85 percent of Presidential Disaster
response and recovery. Just 4 percent of federal
Declarations were for floods (United Nations
disaster spending is for preparation. Just one in
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
Secretariat 2013). In the past five years, all
U.S. states had a flood and twenty-one states
1 Pennsylvana State University, Distinguished Professor
had frequent flooding, although occurrences
Emerita, Hummelstown, PA USA
and severity vary by state. Floods are increas-
Corresponding Author:
ing in frequency and severity, especially in the
Beverly A. Cigler, Penn State University, Hummelstown,
Northeast and South Central United States.
PA 17036-9776, USA.
“Billion Dollar Disasters” occurred once every
Email: cigler@psu.edu

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128
State and Local Government Review 49(2)
US$10 is for mitigation to prevent a disaster in
(Cigler 1988a). Ultimately, the goal is for com-
the first place or reduce its impact; nine in
munities and their businesses and residents to
US$10 is for response.
be resilient in withstanding floods or any other
Lost economic activity is not included in the
extreme events without suffering great losses.
numbers, but one Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency (FEMA n.d.) study found that 40
Mitigation Works
percent of small businesses never reopen after a
disaster. Disasters were the second highest non-
The strongest incentive for promoting mitiga-
defense spending for the national government
tion may lie in the fact that mitigation works.
in 2012—more than either education or health.
The National Institute of Building Sciences/
Since 1983, national government disaster
Multihazard Mitigation Council (2005) found
spending has topped US$1 trillion. Homeowner
that for every dollar spent on mitigation, nearly
insurance typically does not cover flood costs
US$4 is saved on reconstruction and recovery.
and insurance typically pays only one-half of
Those figures are being updated in Fall 2017. A
damages. All told, disasters are a financial bur-
recent Congressional Budget Office (2013)
den for taxpayers who pay for disaster relief
report found a 1–3 cost–benefit ratio from the
and subsidized government insurance, and indi-
mitigation grants studied. Lloyd’s of London
viduals and businesses directly affected since
and Risk Management Solutions (2008) predict
they must pay for what insurance does not
that flood losses along tropical Atlantic coast-
cover or pay.
lines will increase 80 percent by 2030 with
Emergency management historically has
about one foot of sea-level rise, a figure in line
focused on the immediate and urgent aspects
with conservative estimates of the Intergovern-
of a disaster—(1) the response function of
mental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
police, fire, emergency medical services, and
Flood risks and their associated economic
civil defense personnel; (2) preparedness that
impacts can be dramatically reduced. Leading
involves advance planning and training neces-
commercial insurer FM Global’s 500 clients
sary for emergency operations when a flood
had about 85 percent less damage from Hurri-
event occurs; and (3) the postdisaster recovery
cane Katrina as similarly situated properties
period in which damage is repaired. But emer-
that didn’t undertake loss prevention strategies
gency management has a fourth phase, mitiga-
and preparedness measures taken by the firm’s
tion, which has attracted more attention by
policyholders. That is an incredible return on
practitioners and academics in recent decades.
investment: US$500 million in avoided losses
Government’s protection of life and property
via a US$2.5 million investment in loss preven-
involves not just crisis-reactive responses to
tion (Mills and Lecomte 2006).
emergencies but also finding ways to avoid
Researchers at the Wharton School’s Risk
flood problems and to reduce losses from
Management and Decision Processes Center,
events that undoubtedly occurs. Flood mitiga-
University of Pennsylvania, found that Florida
tion is defined as actions taken to reduce or
homeowners can reduce severe hurricane losses
eliminate risk to human life and property before
by 61 percent and save US$51B just by build-
a flood occur and to foster resilience after a
ing to strong construction codes (2007). Higher
flood. The U.S. emergency management sys-
design standards for buildings, for example,
tem uses an “all hazards” and “whole commu-
have more than a 4:1 ratio for payback on
nity” approach throughout the four disaster
money spent. The U.S. Environmental Protec-
phases of mitigation, preparedness, response,
tion Agency (EPA) found that stormwater run-
and recovery.
off volume, a significant cause of flooding, is
Mitigation can be structural, bricks-and-
reduced by 99 percent through the use of green
mortar projects, or nonstructural, primarily land
infrastructure (2017), which is a way to absorb
use actions involving planning and zoning, edu-
heavy downpours and reduce stormwater run-
cation for risk awareness, and insurance.
off by using parks, constructed wetland, and a

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Cigler
129
host of other measures explained later in this
commonplace caused more by tides than
article.
weather. Low-lying roads, high tides, erosion,
This article elaborates on the need for miti-
and flooded waterfront areas are increasingly
gation and provides details on mitigation tools
common, and property damage is often signifi-
and strategies for local governments who want
cant. Water damage to basements, automobiles,
to more effectively mitigate their flood hazards.
and public infrastructure, as well as contami-
Background on floods, including the major
nated groundwater, results from these “slow
types and causes of flooding, and the escalation
disasters” that are sometimes called “blue-sky
of its costs, is reviewed. The goal is to help
floods.” Washington, DC, Miami, New York
readers—taxpayers who bear the costs of disas-
City, Seattle, and San Francisco already keep
ter relief; individuals, businesses, and commu-
data on flooding by the hour as public infra-
nities vulnerable to flood hazards; those with
structure erodes, with increasing financial costs
responsibilities before, during, and after disas-
and inconvenience to residents.
ter events; and researchers—become more
“Flash flooding” occurs in rivers and
aware of the flood problem in the United States
streams due to heavy rains and disrupts many
and the important role of mitigation.
systems, with risks to life and property. Sum-
mer 2017, for example, saw record flooding
in Missouri, with torrential rains and flash
Background on Floods
floods throughout the Ozarks and mid-
This section outlines the major types and
Mississippi. Heavy precipitation is increasing—
causes of flooding, its rising costs and likely
since 1950 by 71 percent in the Northeastern
future severity and costs, and the changes being
United States. These types of floods can result
debated by governments to shift more responsi-
in major disasters, but heavy rains that occur
bilities for flood problems to individuals and
anywhere can lead to periodic stormwater
businesses, along with state and local govern-
overflows. Runoff from rain or snowmelt flows
ments and communities.
over land surfaces and causes flooding. Roads,
driveways, parking lots, rooftops, and other
impervious surfaces prevent water...