Toxic Relationships: The Experiences and Effects of Psychopathy in Romantic Relationships

• Author: Adelle Forth,Sage Sezlik,Seung Lee,Mary Ritchie,John Logan,Holly Ellingwood
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049187
• Published date: 01 November 2022
• Date: 01 November 2022
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049187

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(15) 1627 –1658

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211049187

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Article

Toxic Relationships: The

Experiences and Effects of

Psychopathy in Romantic

Relationships

Adelle Forth1, Sage Sezlik2, Seung Lee1,

Mary Ritchie3, John Logan1,

and Holly Ellingwood4

Abstract

Limited research exists on the impact of psychopathy within romantic relationships.

We examined mental and physical health consequences reported by intimate

partners of individuals with psychopathic traits. Additionally, we explored whether

psychopathy severity and coping impacted the severity of posttraumatic stress

disorder and depression symptoms. Four hundred fifty-seven former and current

intimate partners of individuals with psychopathic traits were recruited from online

support groups. Victims reported a variety of abusive experiences and various

negative symptomatology involving emotional, biological, behavioral, cognitive, and

interpersonal consequences. Psychopathy severity and maladaptive coping were

significantly related to increased PTSD and depression, while adaptive coping was

only related to decreased depression. Regression analyses revealed that experiencing

many forms of victimization predicted increased PTSD and depression symptoms.

Examining the specific consequences experienced by intimate partners of individuals

with psychopathic traits can aid the development of individualized treatment

interventions aimed at symptom mitigation, recovery, and prevention of future

victimization.

1Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada

2University of Ottawa, ON, Canada

3Western University, London, ON, Canada

4Public Safety Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Corresponding Author:

Adelle Forth, Department of Psychology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S

5B6, Canada.

Email: adelle.forth@carleton.ca

1049187IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211049187International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyForth et al.

research-article2021

1628 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 66(15)

Keywords

victimization experiences, PTSD, depression, coping strategies, psychopathy, intimate

partner violence

“Not surprisingly, many psychopaths are criminals, but many others remain out of prison,

using their charm and chameleon-like abilities to cut a wide swath through society and

leaving a wake of ruined lives behind them.” (Hare, 1993, p. 2).

Psychopathic individuals have a propensity for malevolent and harmful behavior

(Blais et al., 2014; Robertson & Knight, 2014; Yang et al., 2010). Despite substantial

research on individuals with psychopathic traits, the experience of those victimized by

psychopathic individuals has received limited attention. The small number of studies

investigating the effects of interacting with individuals with psychopathic characteris-

tics (e.g., Humeny et al., 2021; Kirkman, 2005; Leedom et al., 2012) indicate that

these interactions cause considerable physical, sexual, emotional, and/or financial

harm. These findings reinforce the view that although the prevalence of psychopathy

in the general population is less than 1% (Coid et al., 2009; Neumann & Hare, 2008),

the impact on victims’ psychological and physical health is substantial (Boddy, 2014;

Kirkman, 2005; Leedom, 2017; Mathieu et al., 2014). In light of the limited number of

studies investigating the effects of interacting with individuals who have psychopathic

characteristics, the current study was designed to focus on the experiences of victims

who self-identified as being intimately involved with a partner with psychopathic

traits.

Overview of Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a syndrome characterized by interpersonal (i.e., grandiose, deceitful),

affective (i.e., lack of remorse, shallow emotions), lifestyle (i.e., impulsivity, risk-

taking), and social deviance (i.e., poor anger control, criminal activities) features

(Hare, 2003). The combination of these traits can have catastrophic effects on the

individual who possesses them, as well as those they encounter. Psychopathic indi-

viduals tend to act impulsively and are not fazed by the consequences of their actions,

so long as those actions lead to immediate self-gratification or personal gain. Further,

these individuals lack moral sensibility; they will endorse and engage in immoral

behaviors at a greater frequency than non-psychopathic individuals (e.g., Arvan, 2013;

Ritchie & Forth, 2016); they simply do not care how their actions will impact others.

Although the prevalence of psychopathy in the general population is estimated to be

less than 1% (Coid et al., 2009; Neumann & Hare, 2008), the impact on victims’ psy-

chological and physical health is substantial (Boddy, 2014; Kirkman, 2005; Leedom

et al., 2012; Mathieu et al., 2014). Psychopathy has been identified as a major risk

factor for a multitude of heinous actions, ranging from corporate bullying (e.g.,

Boddy, 2011) to lethal violence (Fox & DeLisi, 2019). Although much of the research

Forth et al. 1629

on psychopathy has focused on those with psychopathic traits, the impact on those

who survive interactions with these individuals must also be considered.

Intimate Partner Violence and Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a major risk factor for engaging in intimate partner violence (IPV),

which is defined as any violence (physical, sexual, and/or emotional) that occurs

within an intimate relationship. In a comprehensive meta-analysis, Robertson et al.

(2020) identified psychopathy as one of the strongest predictors of IPV compared to

other known risk factors (e.g., aggression, antisocial behavior, alcohol use). Findings

were inconsistent about which dimension of psychopathy was most strongly related to

IPV perpetration. The one dimension that appears to be most consistently related to

IPV is the affective dimension (Cunha et al., 2020; Mager et al., 2014), although addi-

tional research across samples and types of IPV is needed to confirm this finding. In

general, those with psychopathic traits are more likely to engage in IPV than those

without (Grann & Wedin, 2002). As many as 15% to 30% of IPV perpetrators are

estimated to meet clinical criteria for psychopathy (Huss & Langhinrichsen-Rohling,

2000).

Prevalence and impact of IPV. The prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) is a

global problem, occuring at relatively high rates, especially for women (World Health

Organization, 2013). In the United States, approximately 1 in 4 women and 1 in 10

men have experienced physical (women: 21.4%, men: 14.9%) or sexual violence

(women: 18.3%, men: 8.2%; Smith et al., 2018). Much higher prevalence rates are

found if emotional abuse (e.g., threatened, belittled, or humiliated in front others,

insulted or made to feel bad about themselves), financial abuse (e.g., preventing access

to family income), or cyber abuse are surveyed (Brem et al., 2019; Sanz-Barbero et al.,

2018; Žukauskienė et al., 2021).

Victims in intimate relationships often experience multiple forms of abuse (e.g.,

Katz et al., 2008). The term polyvictimization has been used to describe this phenom-

enon (Hamby et al., 2012). Several studies have found that polyvictimization is associ-

ated with more negative outcomes (e.g., attachment dysfunction, sexual problems, and

negative mental health symptoms) than experiencing a single type of abuse in adoles-

cents and adults (Katz et al., 2008; Ross et al., 2019; Sabrina & Straus, 2008; Turner

et al., 2010). In a review of mental health outcomes and IPV, Lagdon et al. (2014)

concluded that experiencing multiple forms of abuse increased the severity and inci-

dence of mental health problems. Further, certain characteristics, such as offender-

victim relationship, physical injury severity, and type of crime influence victims’

psychological symptoms. Intimate and/or close relationship of victims with perpetra-

tors increases the likelihood of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and

depression symptoms compared to acquaintance or stranger encounters, particularly in

sexual abuse cases (Gutner et al., 2006; Spencer et al., 2019; Temple et al., 2007), but

also for physical assault survivors (Lawyer et al., 2006). Possible explanations for why

these effects are larger in more intimate relationships include greater emotional and