They are here because we were there: cofa migrants in the United States

• Author: Charles Hirsch Peskin
• Position: J.D. Candidate, 2023, Georgetown University Law Center; B.A., cum laude, 2018, Tufts University
• Pages: 345-368

THEY ARE HERE BECAUSE WE WERE THERE:

COFA MIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES

CHARLES HIRSCH PESKIN*

ABSTRACT

In the late 20

th

century, the United States entered into agreements each

known as the Compact of Free Association (COFA) with the newly independ-

ent states of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and

Palau, collectively the Freely Associated States (FAS). These nations, for-

merly part of the United States-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands, are part of the Micronesian geocultural area which has been under

the dominion of colonial powers for over 500 years. Under the COFAs, citi -

zens of the FAS are allowed to permanently live and work in the United States

and its territories as habitual residents. Known as COFA migrants, these

individuals face a distinct slate of challenges due to the precarious statuto-

rily-defined legal status they maintain in the United States. This Note exam-

ines this status and argues that COFA migrants are most accurately

characterized as imperial denizens by demonstrating the unique hardships

COFA migrants face. With the COFAs expected to be renewed by the end of

2024, this Note offers considerations to be taken into account in the renewal

process which would improve the lives of COFA migrants.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

II. HISTORY OF U.S. COLONIZATION OF MICRONESIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

A. Pre-American Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

B. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

C. Negotiating “Independence”: The Compacts of Free

Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

* Charles Hirsch Peskin, J.D. Candidate, 2023, Georgetown University Law Center; B.A., cum

laude, 2018, Tufts University. © 2023, Charles Hirsch Peskin.

345

III. THE LIMINAL STATUS OF DENIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

A. COFA Migrants as Imperial Citizens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

B. The Insular Cases.............................. 352

C. Imperial Citizenship: An Imperfect Fit for COFA Migrants 354

D. Imperial Denizenship ........................... 355

IV. IMPERIAL DENIZENSHIP IN ACTION ........................ 357

A. Enid, Oklahoma: Cultural Preservation .............. 357

B. Springdale, Arkansas: Jobs, Healthcare, Family, and

Legality ..................................... 359

C. Guam: The “Other” Micronesians ................. 361

D. Hawaii: Combatting Systemic Discrimination with

Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

V. CONSIDERATIONS FOR COFA RENEWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

VI. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

I. INTRODUCTION

Most Americans have never heard of the Compact of Free Association

(COFA).

1

In 1986, the United States implemented an agreement known as

the COFA with the newly independent countries of the Marshall Islands

(RMI) and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), adding Palau in 1994.

These countries are collectively called the Freely Associated States (FAS)

and are part of the Micronesian geocultural area.

2

Before their independence,

the United States controlled the FAS as the Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands (TTPI), a United Nations trusteeship which marked the beginning of

an end to centuries of colonialism.

3

The stated purpose of the COFA was to

“improve health and education and promote self-sufficiency” in the FAS, but

the underlying reasoning was to allow continued U.S. military dominance in

Micronesia.

4

The COFA has thus resulted in dissimilar benefits for the

United States and citizens of the FAS. The COFA allows the United States to

1. REBECCA STOTZER & JOCELYN HOWARD, FINAL SUMMARY OVERVIEW FOR IMPACTS OF SOCIAL

PROXIMITY TO BIAS CRIME AMONG COMPACT OF FREE ASSOCIATION (COFA)-MIGRANTS IN HAWAII 2

(2020).

2. Neal Palafox, Sheldon Riklon, Sekap Esah, Davis Rehuher, William Swain, Kristina Stege, Dale

Naholowaa, Allen Hixon & Kino Ruben, The Micronesians, PEOPLE AND CULTURES OF HAWAI’I 295, 297

(John F. McDermott & Naupaka Andrade eds., 2011).

3. See Palafox et al., supra note 2, at 296.

4. Id. at 297–98.

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