The Role of Early Pubertal Development in the Relationship Between General Strain and Juvenile Crime

• Author: Dylan B. Jackson
• Published date: 01 July 2012
• Date: 01 July 2012
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/1541204011427715
• Published By: Sage Publications, Inc.
• Subject Matter: Articles

Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
10(3) 292-310
The Role of Early Pubertal
ª The Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/1541204011427715
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Relationship Between
General Strain and
Juvenile Crime
Dylan B. Jackson1
Abstract
Agnew’s general strain (1992) theory postulates that negative relationships and negative life events can
give rise to delinquency by way of negative emotions, such as anger. However, the factors that might
condition the effects of general strain on juvenile delinquency remain unclear. As a result, Agnew
et al. (2002) have advocated continued efforts to identify factors that moderate one’s response to
strainful experiences. Using data from a national sample of adolescents, the present study responds
to their request by examining how the effects of general strain on offending vary according to youths’
level of physical development. The findings suggest that advanced pubertal development may
significantly increase the effects of general strain on delinquent outcomes and that these effects may
differ by gender. The implications of this conclusion for criminological theory, future research, and
policy are discussed.
Keywords
general strain, early puberty, moderated effects, juvenile delinquency, violence
Over the past two decades, Agnew’s (1992) General Strain Theory (GST) has received a
considerable amount of attention. The theory postulates that, under certain circumstances,
negative relationships and negative life events give rise to delinquency, in part because these
experiences engender feelings of anger and frustration that promote delinquent forms of coping
(Agnew, 1992, 2001, 2006). GST’s focus on the influence of negative relationships and events
on delinquency is distinct from other mainstream criminological theories, which have focused
instead on the power of positive relationships to either promote or constrain delinquency.
Overall, empirical tests of GST demonstrate a significant relationship between general strain and
various delinquent outcomes, providing support for the main tenets of the theory (Agnew, 2002;
Baron, 2004; Broidy, 2001). Additionally, the majority of the GST literature supports the claim that
1Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Corresponding Author:
Dylan B. Jackson, Florida State University, 634 W. Call Street, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
Email: dbj09@fsu.edu

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Jackson
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anger at least partially mediates the relationship between the experience of strain and delinquency
(Capowich, Mazerolle, & Piquero, 2001; Hay & Evans, 2006; Jang & Johnson, 2003).
Although there is much support for the mediating role of anger, scholars have found less empiri-
cal support for the role of conditioning variables in the relationship between strain and delinquency
(Agnew & White, 1992; Hoffman & Su, 1997; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997, 1998; Paternoster &
Mazerolle, 1994). Because GST considers delinquency to be a form of maladaptive coping, it claims
that factors that improve coping strategies or provide coping resources (e.g., self-efficacy, self-
esteem, and social support) might attenuate the effects of strain on delinquency (Agnew, 2001;
Baron, 2004; Broidy, 2001; Hay & Evans, 2006; Piquero & Sealock, 2000). Similarly, other factors
(e.g., low self-control, temperament, and intelligence) might exacerbate the effects of strain on
delinquency. Several studies have examined the potential moderating role of these factors. The
results of this line of research are mixed at best, although some recent studies reveal conditional
effects of strain (Agnew, 2002; Baron, 2004; Botchkovar, Tittle, & Antonaccio, 2009; Hay, 2003;
Hay & Evans, 2006; Mazerolle & Mahs, 2000; Moon, Morash, McCluskey, & Hwang, 2009). It
is possible that there are additional important factors that impact coping capabilities and/or resources
that are worthy of attention.
There is reason to believe that one important moderating factor in the strain–crime relationship
may be pubertal development. In particular, early pubertal development has been consistently linked
to deviant outcomes (Beaver & Wright, 2005; Felson & Haynie, 2002; Haynie, 2003; Moffitt, Caspi,
Rutter, & Silva, 2001). Moreover, several studies have examined interactions between pubertal
development and various social factors in the prediction of offending and have found support (Caspi,
Lynam, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993; Felson & Haynie, 2002; Piquero & Brezina, 2001; Smith, Udry, &
Morris, 1985). Still, whether or not early pubertal development and adolescent strain interact to pre-
dict delinquent outcomes has yet to be empirically tested.
There are several reasons to suspect that early pubertal development and strain might interact to
predict adolescent deviance. Because puberty is a time of pronounced biological change and hor-
mone production accompanied by increasing societal demands, it is reasonable to suggest that pub-
escent youth may experience greater difficulty managing strain in their lives (Beaver & Wright,
2005; Haynie & Piquero, 2006). Moreover, negative emotionality (i.e., an irritable and impulsive
disposition), which has been linked to hormone levels typical of early puberty, has been found to
encourage delinquent reactions to strain (Agnew, Brezina, Cullen, & Wright, 2002; Ge, Conger,
& Elder, 2001; Susman, Dorn, & Chrousos, 1991). Therefore, if an irritable disposition does indeed
encourage maladaptive behaviors (e.g., delinquency) by conditioning reactions to strain, early
maturation might have a similar effect by prompting persistent negative emotionality. Additionally,
it is possible that the coping resources needed to adequately avoid a criminal response to strain are
not as accessible to youth experiencing early pubertal maturation as they are for other youth. For
example, pubescent youth may socially isolate themselves from positive coping resources, such
as parents and teachers, in an effort to assert their autonomy and prove their maturity (Moffitt, 1993).
To the extent that early pubertal development exacerbates strain in the ways outlined, then inves-
tigation into the moderating effects of puberty on the association between strain and delinquency is
warranted. Thus, the goal of this study is to address a void in the literature by examining whether
early pubertal development moderates the effect of adolescent strain on delinquency. This relation-
ship is tested using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health).
First, the degree to which both strain and the experience of early puberty are predictive of delin-
quency will be examined. Second, the extent to which early pubertal development conditions the
effect of strain on delinquent outcomes will be tested. This study will address the void in the liter-
ature (a) by examining the biosocial phenomenon of early pubertal maturation as a potentially
important moderator to strain that operates to increase delinquency and (b) by specifying the social
factors that matter most in compelling early maturing youth to offend. This study has the potential to

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Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 10(3)
clarify who is at greater risk of committing deviant acts in response to strain and provide informed
hypotheses concerning how this process might unfold.
General Overview of GST
According to GST, strain can come from several sources. The theory names three categories of
strain implicated in delinquent acts: the inability to achieve a goal, the removal of a positive
stimulus, and the presentation of a negative stimulus (Agnew, 1985, 1992). The theory argues that
these three categories of strain can trigger negative emotional states, which can cause people to
commit deviant acts. In particular, anger is seen as being especially influential in producing devi-
ant outcomes. Agnew (1992) hypothesizes that anger can increase perceived injury, foster a desire
to retaliate, lower inhibitions, and energize corrective action. Thus, although other emotions may
result from strainful experiences, GST postulates that anger will most likely lead to a deviant
response to strain.
GST does not, however, suggest that all strains will invariably result in delinquency. In general,
Agnew claims that strain will most often lead to crime in situations that favor the use of delinquent
adaptations (Agnew, 2001, 2006). Specifically, the availability of coping resources (e.g., problem-
solving abilities), a disposition toward delinquency, and constraints to delinquent coping (e.g., the
absence of opportunities for crime) will all impact the use of delinquent adaptations. Agnew,
Brezina, Wright, and Cullen (2001) have also specified four conditions under which strain might
be expected to result in crime. They claim that stressors are most likely to lead to crime when they
are seen as unjust, are high in magnitude, are low in social control, and create incentives for criminal
responses. Agnew has also recently identified the types of strain that best fit these criteria, including
physical and verbal abuse, parental rejection, poor school performance, and work-related problems
(Agnew, 2001, 2006).
Previous Tests of GST and Their Findings
The research on GST is quite extensive. However, individual studies typically do not test all of the
tenets of the theory but focus on one or two of its claims. Nevertheless, three broad generalizations
can be drawn from the strain literature. First, virtually all studies that have examined the basic rela-
tionship between general strain and crime...