The relationship between participation in different types of training programs and gainful employment for formerly incarcerated individuals

• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21325
• Date: 01 September 2018
• Author: Candace Flatt,Ronald L. Jacobs
• Published date: 01 September 2018

QUANTITATIVE STUDY

The relationship between participation in different

types of training programs and gainful

employment for formerly incarcerated individuals

Candace Flatt

1,2

| Ronald L. Jacobs

3

1

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,

Champaign, Illinois

2

Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois

3

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,

Education Policy, Organization and Leadership,

Champaign, Illinois

Correspondence

Candace Flatt, Eastern Illinois University,

600 Lincoln Avenue, Charleston, IL 61920.

Email: crflatt@eiu.edu

According to the U.S. Department of Justice (2017), over 10,000

formerly incarcerated individuals are released each week from fed-

eral and state prisons. The purpose of this study is to draw upon

human capital theory to examine the relationships between the

types of training programs and gainful employment for formerly

incarcerated individuals. Three types of training programs consid-

ered in this study are school-based training programs, pre-

employment training programs, and postemployment training pro-

grams. Generalized linear mixed models are used to determine if

each type of training program is related to employment status and

income. Based on a sample from the National Longitudinal Survey

of Youth 1997 (NLSY97), postemployment training programs are

positively related to gainful employment for formerly incarcerated

individuals. This result emphasizes the pivotal role of employers in

addressing mass incarceration through human resources develop-

ment (HRD).

KEYWORDS

employment, formerly incarcerated, human capital

1|INTRODUCTION

In 2008, the number of formerly incarcerated individuals who are of working-age in the United States was estimated

to be between 12 and 14 million people. This represents approximately 3% of the total working-age population

(or one in 33 working-aged adults). If all individuals with a felony record are considered, regardless of incarceration,

the number increases to approximately 7% of the working-age population (or one in 15 working-aged adults).

According to Schmitt and Warner (2011), the annual loss of output due to unemployment and underemployment of

formerly incarcerated individuals is between $57 and $65 billion. Furthermore, the number of formerly incarcerated

individuals in the labor force is expected to increase in the foreseeable future.

According to Nally, Lockwood, and Ho (2011), the top five industries hiring formerly incarcerated individuals in

the state of Indiana are temporary help (23%), lodging and food services (21%), wholesale and retail trades (15%),

DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.21325

Human Resource Development Quarterly. 2018;29:263–286. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hrdq © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 263

manufacturing (14%), and construction (9%). Since 2006, the percentage of formerly incarcerated individuals

employed in manufacturing and construction has steadily declined. Subsequently, the industry most likely to employ

formerly incarcerated individuals has become temporary help followed by lodging and food services. Based on the

data from Virginia, Lichtenberger (2006) found that manufacturing (22%), construction (20%), food services (17%),

and administrative and support services (temporary agencies—14%) industries were most likely to hire formerly incar-

cerated individuals. Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) consistently show formerly

incarcerated individuals are employment in entertainment (including lodging and food services), construction, profes-

sional and administrative (including temporary help agencies), and manufacturing. Table 1 provides the percentage of

formerly incarcerated individuals employed by industry from 2000 to 2011.

Formerly incarcerated individuals are an essential part of the contingent workforce needed for a strong econ-

omy. According to Russ-Eft, Watkins, Marsick, Jacobs, and McLean (2014), contingent workers are a growing propor-

tion of the workforce. In June 2018, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2018) released the initial findings from the

2017 contingent worker supplement of the Current Population Survey (CPS). Based on the May 2017 CPS, approxi-

mately 1.5% of the labor force consists of temporary and contract workers (2.3 million workers). Due to the lack of

TABLE 1 Percentage of formerly incarcerated individuals employed by industry, 2000–2011 NLSY97

Industry 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Arts, entertainment,

recreation,

accommodations, and

food services (%)

23 17 19 16 14 13 15 15 16 15 15 14

Construction (%) 13 12 10 8 13 13 14 15 15 12 12 12

Professional, scientific,

management,

administrative, and waste

management services (%)

7 3 8 12 8 11 12 9 10 9 11 10

Manufacturing (%) 648887986667

Other services (except

public administration) (%)

543466465576

Retail trade (%) 477857866655

Transportation and

warehousing (%)

332323223233

Health care (%) 312223223223

Wholesale trade (%) 011322332222

Finance, insurance, real

estate, and rental and

leasing (%)

102212221212

Mining (%) 000000111121

Social assistance (%) 010000111111

Agriculture, forestry,

fishing and hunting (%)

111111111111

Information and

communications (%)

111011111121

Educational, health and

social services (%)

321110110111

Utilities (%) 000000001110

Public administration (%) 031111001100

Armed forces (%) 211100000000

Uncodable (%) 100000111100

Missing industry code (%) 28 40 33 29 34 30 22 26 26 32 29 30

264 FLATT AND JACOBS