The Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prisoners in Supermax Units

• Published date: 01 December 2008
• Date: 01 December 2008
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X07309720
• Subject Matter: Articles

622

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

Volume 52 Number 6

December 2008 622-640

© 2008 Sage Publications

10.1177/0306624X07309720

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The Psychological Effects of

Solitary Confinement on

Prisoners in Supermax Units

Reviewing What We Know and

Recommending What Should Change

Bruce A. Arrigo

Jennifer Leslie Bullock

The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

This article examines the psychological consequences of short- and long-term solitary

confinement for prisoners in the United States subjected to administrative or discipli-

nary segregation. Particular attention is paid to the use of secure housing units, alter-

natively known as control units or supermax units. These correctional entities allow

for the isolation of convicts under conditions that offer little sensory stimulation and

minimal opportunities for interaction with other people. The circumstances typically

found in these units and the heightened potential for the abuse of prisoners are

described. The connections between internment and mental illness—as well as isolation

and race, gender, and class—are explored. A set of recommendations for the reform

of secure housing is presented.

Keywords: supermax prisons; solitary confinement; psychological effects; abuse of

prisoners; correctional policy reform

Solitary confinement, or the segregation of convicts, has been used in prisons

since their inception (Foucault, 1995; Rhodes, 2004). Prisoners are placed in

isolated housing for reasons that are deemed punitive or administrative, but the

objective in all cases is to increase control over them (Cockburn, 2001; Toch, 2003).1

As the U.S. public becomes increasingly fearful of crime, legislators advocate for

severe punishment of criminal offenders (Reiman, 2005). As harsh crime control

policies have become more popular, the use of secure housing units (SHUs)—also

called supermaximum custody units—and the short- and long-term segregation of

convicts have become widespread (Haney, 2006; Rhodes, 2004). Consequently, the

Authors’Note: Please address correspondence to Bruce A. Arrigo, Department of Criminal Justice,The

University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28223-0001;

e-mail: barrigo@email.uncc.edu.

Arrigo, Bullock / Solitary Confinement 623

ever-increasing limitations that are being placed on the personal freedoms of

prisoners raise serious civil rights issues (e.g., Kupers, 1999; Ross & Richards, 2002;

Toch, 1977).

However, of particular concern for this article are the psychological effects of

disciplinary and administrative segregation in SHUs. Although some attention to this

concern has been addressed in the extant literature (e.g., Haney, 2003; Kurki &

Morris, 2001; H. A. Miller, 1994), limited research “has directly examined the effect

of supermax confinement on inmates’ psychological and physical health” (Pizarro &

Stenius, 2004, p. 255). The origin of these disturbing correctional practices is rooted

in the history of the penitentiary in general and in the case law pertaining to solitary

confinement in particular. Thus, drawing attention to this history is useful in that it

identifies the political engines that have fueled the growth of SHU facilities in the

United States and the increasing deployment of segregated housing as a customary tool

for punishing and managing the nation’s burgeoning prison population (Mears &

Watson, 2006). Moreover, reviewing the relevant case law helps situate the plight and

suffering of those subjected to the practice of solitary confinement in an important

and timely evaluative context (King, 1999; Luise, 1989; N. Miller, 1995; Mears &

Reisig, 2006).

Accordingly, following a summary presentation of these historical and legal matters,

the pertinent empirical (and related) literature documenting the psychological effects of

such isolation is presented. In addition, where useful and appropriate, these effects are

considered in relation to both long- and short-term segregation. Moreover, the impact

of SHU isolation for persons with preexisting mental illness is considered, and studies

examining race, gender, and class dynamics are reviewed. Finally, mindful of the

research to date, several recommendations for correctional policy reform are discussed.

Solitary Confinement in U.S. Prisons:

Historical and Legal Considerations

During the early 1800s, two prison systems developed in the United States: the

Pennsylvania system and the Auburn system. The Auburn system, developed in New

York, was characterized by silent but congregate labor. The Pennsylvania system

was characterized by the rigid isolation of prisoners both from society and from each

other. The Pennsylvania system was based on the premise that isolation and seclusion

would give prisoners time to reflect on their crimes and become penitent—hence the

term penitentiary (Rogers, 1993). The extreme isolation that was characteristic of the

early prisons operating under the Pennsylvania system ultimately resulted in serious

physical and psychological consequences for convicts (Kurki & Morris, 2001;

Pizarro & Stenius, 2004). Because of this, the system was eventually discontinued

(Grassian 1983; Haney,1993; King, 1999). In 1890, the U.S. Supreme Court commented

on the adverse effects of solitary confinement in prisons: