The Importance of Social Support for Individuals on Specialized Probation: A Gender Comparison of Relapse and Revocation

• Published date: 01 June 2024
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/00938548241231948
• Author: Leanne Fiftal Alarid,Adam K. Matz
• Date: 01 June 2024
• Subject Matter: Articles

CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR, 2024, Vol. 51, No. 6, June 2024, 831 –849.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548241231948

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© 2024 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology

831

THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR

INDIVIDUALS ON SPECIALIZED PROBATION

A Gender Comparison of Relapse and Revocation

LEANNE FIFTAL ALARID

The University of Texas at El Paso

ADAM K. MATZ

University of North Dakota

Informed by social support theory, this study examined gender differences of revocation and relapse of 526 probationers

diagnosed with a substance use disorder, mental health disorder, or co-occurring disorder who were court-ordered for treat-

ment. Within 18 months of starting probation, 51% of men and 56% of women were revoked. Although not statistically

significant, the relapse rate was 34% for women and 26% for men. Significant predictors of revocation were similar across

gender with a lack of family support being the strongest predictor for both groups, though notably stronger for women.

Family support was a significant predictor of relapse for women but not for men. Inpatient treatment of at least 180 days had

the greatest effect in reducing relapse and revocation for women. Treatment dosage of at least 90 days had modest effects in

reducing men’s revocation, but the treatment effect was less pronounced for men’s relapse rates.

Keywords: probation; relapse; recidivism; social support; substance use disorder; mental health disorder; gender differences

Probation supervision remains the most common sanction in the criminal justice system

to address offender substance use and mental health needs. In 2021, nearly 3 million

adults were supervised on probation in the United States, which represents more than 3.5

times as many people released annually from prison to community supervision (Carson &

Kluckow, 2023; Kaeble, 2023). A considerable number of men and women on probation

have either a substance use disorder (SUD), suffer from a serious mental illness (SMI), or

simultaneously experience both substance use and mental health disorders, also known as a

AUTHORS’ NOTE: The authors and publication of this research received no external funding support. The

authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors wish to thank the Bexar County Community Supervision

and Corrections Department for data access, and to Shonna Webster and Kayli Hoffer for data collection and

coding assistance. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Leanne Fiftal Alarid,

Department of Criminal Justice and Security Studies, The University of Texas at El Paso, 500 West University

Avenue, El Paso, TX 79968; e-mail: lfalarid@utep.edu.

1231948CJBXXX10.1177/00938548241231948Criminal Justice and BehaviorAlarid, Matz / Gender and Social Support on Specialized Probation

research-article2024

832 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR

co-occurring disorder (COD). Research suggests that the presence of one or more of these

disorders increases the likelihood of revocation and relapse during supervision (Gu et al.,

2023; Wolff et al., 2014). Although some studies have examined within-group differences

of offenders with SUD, SMI, and COD (Houser et al., 2019), even fewer studies have

examined gender differences within these three groups.

Notably, scholars have taken two different theoretical approaches to examine the gender

differences of SUD and SMI offenders. First, the gender pathways approach supports the

idea that women face different challenges and risks to relapse and recidivism than men

(Daly, 1992; Jeffries et al., 2019; Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2009). The second theoretical

framework is social support (Albrecht & Adelman, 1987; Cullen, 1994) that emphasizes the

importance of relationships and open communication, which is particularly important dur-

ing supervision for offenders with SMI (Epperson et al., 2017). Still, the research remains

unclear the extent to which resource differences for women on probation such as less

employment experience and lower education levels, affect women’s ability to achieve posi-

tive behavioral outcomes (Curcio & Pattavina, 2018; O’Brien, 2002; Peters et al., 1997),

and also the effect that social support has on revocation and relapse.

The current study examined the key risk factors with men and women on specialized

probation who had a SUD, a SMI diagnosis, or a COD to determine whether gender

differences exist with respect to relapse and revocation, and second, the influence of

social support on probationers. In the next section, we review the literature on the

prevalence of SMI and SUD found among probationers in the United States. We then

examine what is currently known about specialized probation and gender differences

relative to SUD and SMI as it affects relapse and recidivism. Finally, we introduce the

gender pathways to crime perspective and social support theory as potential explana-

tions for our data.

PREVALENCE OF SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS ON

PROBATION

Drug and alcohol dependency/use is a common problem for justice-involved individuals.

Nearly half (47.5%) of all individuals who had been on probation supervision in the last

year met the criteria for SUD, according to national statistics (Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Services Administration, 2021, Table 8.39b). Other research has estimated the SUD

rate to be higher; between 60% and 80% for those on community supervision (Galvin et al.,

2022; Reichert & Gleicher, 2019).

The prevalence of SMI was 8% for men and 22% for women on probation, which is

twice the percent found in the general population (Substance Abuse and Mental Health

Services Administration, 2021, Table 6.16b). Thus, it is not surprising to find individuals on

community supervision who have a COD, where both mental health and substance abuse

coexist as a major problem. For example, between 52% and 74% of justice-involved indi-

viduals with an SMI also had co-occurring SUD problems (Hartwell, 2004; Modestin &

Wuermle, 2005). Research found that individuals with COD are more likely to recidivate

than individuals with only one of these risk factors (Hartwell, 2004; McReynolds et al.,

2010; Messina et al., 2004). Initial examination of this issue found that risk factors other

than SMI played a more direct role in recidivism (Skeem et al., 2014). However, others

have argued continued alcohol or substance abuse may be a significant risk factor (Castillo