The Illicit Supply of New Psychoactive Substances Within and From China: A Descriptive Analysis

• Date: 01 April 2022
• Author: Minqi Zhao
• Published date: 01 April 2022
• DOI: 10.1177/0306624X19866119
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19866119

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(5) 495 –516

© The Author(s) 2019

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X19866119

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Article

The Illicit Supply of New

Psychoactive Substances

Within and From China:

A Descriptive Analysis

Minqi Zhao1

Abstract

Although China has played a significant role in the emergence and expansion of new

psychoactive substances (NPS) worldwide, little research has specifically focused on

the illicit supply of NPS within China and smuggling from China. In this study, data were

extracted from sentencing files obtained from closed criminal cases to develop an

objective understanding of the NPS supply chain in China. The sample consisted of 341

major cases concerning the illicit supply of three groups of NPS (ketamine, synthetic

cathinone, and fentanyl) and five categories of offense, including manufacturing,

distributing, retailing, transporting, and manufacturing–retailing. Significant differences

between these categories of offense in terms of offenders’ profiles, behaviors, and

supply patterns were observed. Our results suggest the existence of a dynamic and

complex supply network both in China and in terms of smuggling routes from China.

Keywords

ketamine, synthetic cathinone, fentanyl, new psychoactive substances (NPS), illicit

supply, supply reduction

Introduction

In recent years, new psychoactive substances (NPS) have become a global phenome-

non. Between 2011 and 2017, more than 100 countries worldwide had reported the

emergence of more than 800 such substances (United Nations Offices on Drugs and

1Ghent University, Belgium

Corresponding Author:

Minqi Zhao, Institute for International Research on Criminal Policy (IRCP), Ghent University, Campus

Aula, Universiteitstraat 4, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.

Email: Minqi.zhao@ugent.be

866119IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X19866119International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyZhao

research-article2019

496 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 66(5)

Crimes [UNODC], 2017). Across Europe, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs

and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) monitored more than 670 NPS in 2018. Concurrently,

rapid increases in NPS seizures were also observed, as reflected in the number of NPS

confiscated by law enforcement agencies rising from 20,000 in 2010 to 71,000 in 2016

(EMCDDA, 2018). Similarly, NPS have flooded into North America since the early

2010s. In recent times, the United States has faced significant increases in NPS sei-

zures and health-related problems, such as deadly drug crises spawned by synthetic

opioids, particularly fentanyl, which are being increasingly consumed and are among

the most frequently seized synthetic opioids in the United States (Drug Enforcement

Administration [DEA], 2016).

The illicit production, distribution, and consumption of NPS have also been the

subject of increasing concern in China (National Narcotic Control Commission

[NNCC], 2017). Recently, the country has witnessed a growing number of manufac-

turing facilities being dismantled by national authorities, resulting in a significant

increase in NPS seizures, which have increased from 20 kg in 2015 to 800 kg in 2016

(NNCC, 2016, 2017). In 2017, Chinese authorities identified 34 new substances, in

addition to the 230 NPS already known substances seized in various parts of the coun-

try (International Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2018). Among them, some NPS,

such as ketamine, synthetic cathinone, and fentanyl, have been commonly produced

and distributed in several provinces in China (You, Deng, & Zhao, 2017). Furthermore,

there has been a sharp rise in the consumption of NPS. The latest survey conducted by

the China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) in 2016 showed that ketamine has

become one of the five most commonly used substances, and the number of synthetic

cathinone users has tripled compared with 2015 (CFDA, 2016).

In response, at the international level, the Outcome Document of the United Nations

General Assembly Special Session on Drugs 2016 aimed to continue to identify and

monitor trends in the composition, production, prevalence, and distribution of NPS.

Moreover, there are a series of resolutions that specifically focus on NPS issues, such

as Resolution A/RES/73/192 and 67/193, issued by the General Assembly, as well as

Resolution 56/4, 57/9 issued by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. These resolutions

have served as authoritative interpretations of the United Nations Charter, to give

expressions to the international community’s belief that specific measures are required

to control NPS in accordance with general principles of law as recognized by civilized

nations (Bleicher, 1969). The European drug policy (EU Action Plan on Drugs, 2017-

2020) also acknowledges the importance of improving the capacity to detect, assess,

and respond effectively to the emergence and use of NPS, and encourages the develop-

ment of strategic responses to reduce the production and distribution of NPS at national

and EU levels. The United States Office of National Drug Control Policy has also

facilitated several responses, which include preventing the initiation of illicit usage,

providing evidence-based treatment for substance abuse, and reducing the availability

of illicit drugs through international engagement (Chester, 2017).

In China, major policies and procedures, including updates of antidrug laws and

enactment of antidrug campaigns, have been developed by policy makers and law

enforcement agencies. For example, China categorized 116 new substances as