The Effects of Vocational Education on Recidivism and Employment Among Individuals Released Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

• Published date: 01 November 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231159886
• Author: Susan McNeeley
• Date: 01 November 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231159886

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2023, Vol. 67(15) 1547 –1564

© The Author(s) 2023

Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/0306624X231159886

journals.sagepub.com/home/ijo

Article

The Effects of Vocational

Education on Recidivism

and Employment Among

Individuals Released Before

and During the COVID-19

Pandemic

Susan McNeeley1

Abstract

Prior research shows employment is an important component of desistance, but there

is mixed evidence regarding the effectiveness of prison-based education programs.

Therefore, this study examines whether participation in vocational education programs

while incarcerated improves recidivism and post-release employment outcomes. In

addition, the study controls for the timing of release to examine whether recidivism

and employment outcomes varied during the COVID-19 pandemic. Observable

selection bias was reduced by using propensity score matching to create similar

treatment and comparison groups. After matching, there were no differences in any

outcome between those who obtained vocational certificates and the comparison

group. The results demonstrate the importance of accounting for selection bias in

evaluations of education and employment programs. It is recommended that career-

focused educational programs incorporate the risk-needs-responsivity model and the

continuum of care principle, build relationships with community employers, and assist

with practical barriers to employment.

Keywords

prison programming, vocational programs, recidivism, post-release employment,

reentry

1Minnesota Department of Corrections, Saint Paul, USA

Corresponding Author:

Susan McNeeley, Minnesota Department of Corrections, 1450 Energy Park Drive, Suite 200, Saint Paul,

MN 55108, USA.

Email: susan.mcneeley@state.mn.us

1159886IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X231159886International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyMcNeeley

research-article2023

1548 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 67(15)

Introduction

The literature on reentry to the community after release from prison confirms that

recidivism is lower among those who find stable, high-quality employment (Berg &

Huebner, 2011; La Vigne et al., 2004; Lockwood et al., 2012; Uggen, 2000; Verweij et

al., 2021; Visher & Courtney, 2007; Visher et al., 2011). The relationship between

employment and desistance is especially salient when individuals work in “career

jobs” rather than “survival jobs” (Bucklen & Zajac, 2009; Niebuhr & Orrick, 2020;

Uggen, 1999) . Despite the importance of obtaining employment soon after release

from prison, releasees face difficulty in finding work (Uggen & Staff, 2001; Visher &

Courtney, 2007) . Those who have been incarcerated are often not well educated and

lack job training and vocational skills (Coates, 2016; Duwe, 2018a; Petersilia, 2003;

Visher et al., 2011); importantly, many incarcerated people are released with similar

educational and vocational deficits as they had when they were incarcerated (Crayton

& Neusteter, 2008; Solomon et al., 2004). Given the importance of education for

obtaining employment, prison-based education and career training may be a key com-

ponent of successful reentry.

Accordingly, many correctional agencies have implemented programs that focus on

education and vocational training, with a handful of single studies that examined such

programs showing some success (see Clark, 2015; Davis et al., 2013; Drake et al.,

2009; Duwe, 2015a, 2015b; Duwe & Clark, 2014, 2017; Duwe & McNeeley, 2020;

McNeeley, 2018, 2022; Saylor & Gaes, 1992; Towne et al., 2022). However, other

evaluations of employment programming among justice-involved people have shown

null results (Cook et al., 2015; Northcutt Bohmert & Duwe, 2012). More notably,

systematic reviews (Newton et al., 2018; Nur & Nguyen, 2023; Visher et al., 2005)

found no reduction in recidivism or increase in employment. These authors suggest

that program inconsistency and methodological issues render it difficult to determine

at this time whether vocational programming improves post-release outcomes. Much

of the past work on educational programming has examined career-focused education

alongside other education or other vocational programs. As a result, the unique effect

of vocational education on reentry success is not well understood.

Importantly, there have been few evaluations that correct for differences in those

who self-select into educational programming. Prior research suggests program par-

ticipation varies by a number of personal characteristics such as gender, age, time

served, criminal history, offense type prison visitation, other treatment participation

(e.g., Butler et al., 2022; Duwe, 2015a; McNeeley, 2021, 2022). However, only a

handful of studies have attempted to account for self-selection (see Jonas-van Dijk et

al., 2020). A review of experimental research on employment-focused programs sug-

gested the overall link between employment and recidivism may be a result of selec-

tion into employment by a subgroup of highly motivated individuals (Muhlhausen,

2015).

Therefore, this study uses propensity score matching (PSM) to account for observ-

able selection bias before examining recidivism and employment outcomes for those

who obtained vocational certificates, diplomas, or licenses while incarcerated. In