The Americanization of Karen Refugee Youth: Exploring Attitudes Toward and Use of Methamphetamine

• Author: Brooke N. Cooley,Lisa L. Sample,Karen Rolf,Julie D. Garman
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211022655
• Published date: 01 October 2022
• Date: 01 October 2022
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211022655

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(13-14) 1415 –1431

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211022655

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Article

The Americanization of Karen

Refugee Youth: Exploring

Attitudes Toward and

Use of Methamphetamine

Brooke N. Cooley1, Lisa L. Sample2,

Karen Rolf2, and Julie D. Garman2

Abstract

Drug use among refugee populations is a concerning trend in many urban American

cities. For instance, Omaha, Nebraska is home to an estimated 7,000 refugees from

Myanmar, with at least 75% of those being Karen refugees. The purpose of this paper

is to explore methamphetamine use among Karen adolescents in Omaha and to

examine whether Karen youth bring their drug use habits with them from refugee

camps or if they learn about drugs from their American peers. Two focus groups of

Karen youth and two focus groups of Karen parents were conducted to examine

methamphetamine use among this population. Findings suggest, like most youth, the

Karen children were reluctant to disclose their own use of drugs, but they did see

the use of methamphetamine and other drugs in their schools. It appears drug use

among the Karen youth is acquired during the “Americanization” of these children

in Omaha schools.

Keywords

methamphetamine, Americanization, juveniles, Karen, refugees, Myanmar

Introduction

Drug use among refugee populations is a concerning trend in many urban American

cities. Omaha, Nebraska is one such city that attracts a large refugee population from

many nations, including Myanmar, formery known as Burma, and the number of

1Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA

2University of Nebraska, Omaha, USA

Corresponding Author:

Brooke N. Cooley, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Ball State University, 2000 W.

University Avenue, North Quad M282, Muncie, IN 47306, USA.

Email: bncooley@bsu.edu

1022655IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211022655International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyCooley et al.

research-article2021

1416 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 66(13-14)

Myanmar refugees is not only growing, but drug use among the Burmese appears

problematic.1 Omaha is home to an estimated 7,000 refugees from Myanmar, with at

least 75% of those being Karen refugees. Myanmar refugees are a heterogeneous

group of Karen, Karenni, Chin, and Kachin ethnic groups and Myanmar Muslims

persecuted for their religious beliefs (Kobori et al., 2009). The movement of refugees

from Myanmar has declined moderately, from 26% in 2015, to 15% in 2016, and 9%

in 2017 (Zong & Batalova, 2017). Over the past decade, Myanmar refugees have been

the largest group resettled to the United States, representing 23% (163,451) of the

708,354 refugees admitted since 2007 (Zong & Batalova, 2017).

Providers who serve refugee families in Omaha, who also created the Prevention

of Expansion of Meth in Refugee Youth organization, report that methamphetamine

use among Karen youth (persons 12–20 years old) appears to be precariously high

compared to American youth. The prevalence of methamphetamine use is at an all-

time low for American 8th, 10th, and 12th graders, and the number of youths using

methamphetamine in the U.S. has declined significantly since 1999 (Johnston et al.,

2018). Despite these trends, Karen youth have experienced a reversed trend with an

uptick in methamphetamine arrests. Methamphetamine is a highly addictive stimu-

lant that has notable effects on the central nervous system. Negative consequences

related to methamphetamine use include neurological damage and altered cognitive

and behavioral functioning (Davidson et al., 2001). Scholars have found that com-

munity risk factors significantly influence methamphetamine use (Arthur et al.,

2002; Jang & Johnson, 2001; Rodriguez et al., 2005). What prior research on this

population in Omaha has not answered is how and why percentages of methamphet-

amine use varies across racial and ethnic groups. Survey information specific to

Karen youth has not been conducted in Omaha or the U.S. While the manufacture

and use of methamphetamine has been well-documented in Myanmar, neighboring

regions, and refugee camps (Chouvy, 2013; Cohen, 2014; Munro, 2012), little is

known about methamphetamine use among Karen refugee youth in the United

States. If refugee populations bring their methamphetamine habits and behaviors

with them to the U.S., they could be introducing methamphetamine use into previ-

ously unaffected communities. Conversely, drug use by Karen youth may be learned

during the “Americanization” of these children in Omaha schools. Though overall

rates of methamphetamine use among American youth are low, the existing popula-

tion of drug users may be enough to expose immigrants to drugs popular in the U.S.

Consequently, it may be that Karen youth are actually socialized into drug use by

their American peers. This alternative would suggest Karen youth and other immi-

grants may benefit from drug use education and support to prevent drug use as they

transition into an American way of life.

The purpose of this paper is to explore methamphetamine use among Karen adoles-

cents in Omaha and to assess if Karen youth’s drug use is socially selected from prior

experience in refugee camps, or is it facilitated through assimilation processes inher-

ent in the Omaha Public School District (OPS). Practical implications of this research

include when to introduce primary and secondary drug prevention efforts for adoles-

cents, and particularly for refugee youth. Also, the current research examined both