Corporate Personhood and the Rights of Corporate Speech
Publication year | 2007 |
Citation | Vol. 30 No. 04 |
My objective here is to provide a little historical background on business corporations and their place in First Amendment law. In the course of that overview, I will also make a few observations that I believe can be helpful in thinking about corporate speech rights. First, I will argue that one aspect of the constitutional status of corporations-the notion of corporate personhood-has not played the central role in shaping corporate speech rights that some believe. Corporations have free speech rights, but they are more limited than those held by individuals. Second, I will argue that there is not a single right of corporate speech. Rather, there are at least four distinct free speech rights held by corporations. Each one is subject to its own set of rules and restrictions, and there are a number of inconsistencies in the reasoning of the relevant decisions, breeding a set of doctrines with little coherence. I will conclude with some thoughts on the effectiveness of limiting corporate speech in an age of "loose" corporate law.
I.
When the Founders established the principle of free speech in both the Federal and state constitutions, corporate speech was far from their minds. There were very few corporations at the founding, with estimates of only about six corporations chartered in the U.S. at that time.(fn1) Moreover, in the early decades of the U.S., the states exercised considerable control over corporations that made them unlikely holders of so-called rights against the government. Corporations could only be formed by an affirmative grant by the legislature and were required to have a "public purpose."(fn2) As part of this process of state chartering, states dictated corporate affairs with a fine eye for detail-setting the rates companies could charge, providing for government inspection, and establishing firm limits on corporate powers.(fn3)
In the landmark decision
States easily maneuvered around the
In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution.(fn10) Its most significant provision, Section 1, guarantees to all "persons" due process of law and equal protection of the laws. Although corporations were widespread and well known at this time,(fn11) the Framers of the Fourteenth Amendment did not intend to grant corporations these rights.(fn12) One member of the congressional committee that drafted the Fourteenth Amendment however-Roscoe Conkling of New York- argued to the Supreme Court on behalf of a railroad company that the drafters silently intended to include corporations within the ambit of the Amendment,(fn13) giving rise to what has been called the "conspiracy theory" of the Fourteenth Amendment.(fn14) No independent evidence to support his claim has ever been uncovered.(fn15)
Nevertheless, in 1886, the Supreme Court issued an opinion in the case of
This doctrinal development coincided with the dawn of the giant management corporations.(fn19) Fed by a national economy, broader stock ownership separated from corporate control, and the liberalization of corporate law to remove longstanding limits on corporate powers-such as the doctrine of ultra vires-American business became organized largely around the business corporation.(fn20) Less and less were corporations controlled by state corporate law; increasingly they were run by professional, salaried managers.(fn21)
According to some critics of
In the realm of freedom of speech, corporate rights have never been equivalent to those of individuals. In the early 1900s, Congress and the majority of state legislatures adopted laws completely barring corporations...
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