A Statewide Comparison of Gang and Non-Gang Youth in Public High Schools

• Author: Christopher J. Sullivan,Erika Gebo
• DOI: 10.1177/1541204013495900
• Published date: 01 July 2014
• Date: 01 July 2014
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

A Statewide Comparison of

Gang and Non-Gang Youth in

Public High Schools

Erika Gebo

1

and Christopher J. Sullivan

2

Abstract

Gang and non-gang youth are often considered distinct for the purposes of prevention and interven-

tion; yet, research shows there are areas of overlap in their risk profiles. This study examines areas

of overlap and differences using a statewide representative sample of high school youth from the

Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Gang membership is treated as a predictor variable rather than as

an outcome. Results from a latent class analysis show that gang members do not form their own

group in the school setting. These findings are discussed in relation to prevention and intervention

strategies in the school realm and beyond.

Keywords

gangs, risk factors, YRBS, latent class analysis

Gang members are typically seen as a distinct segment of youth who engage in antisocial behavior,

arguably because research consistently shows that youth who are gang members are more delinquent

than non-gang members (i.e., Barnes, Beaver, & Miller, 2010; LeBlanc & Lanctoˆt, 1998; Thorn-

berry, Krohn, Lizotte, Smith, & Tobin, 2003). Theory, prevention and intervention strategies, and

public policy frequently address gangs and gang members as specific populations. For example, the-

oretically, distinct explanations of gang formation and gang membership have been developed and

continue to be refined (Howell & Egley, 2005; Jankowski, 1991; Vigil, 1988), while targeted pre-

vention and intervention programming has focused on those at risk and gang involved (see Howell,

2010, for a review). Finally, federal and state funding entities have specifically required their gran-

tees to target gangs for prevention and intervention (i.e., Gebo & Bond, 2012). Collectively, given

the focus on gangs from these arenas, it is important to learn more about gang members to help guide

efforts to understand, prevent, and intervene as necessary.

Comparing gang and non-gang youth is an important line of inquiry in the continued refinement

of understanding gangs and gang members and what works (and what does not) in prevention and

1

Suffolk University, Boston, MA, USA

2

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA

Corresponding Author:

Erika Gebo, Suffolk University, 8 Ashburton Place, Boston, MA 02108, USA.

Email: egebo@suffolk.edu

Youth Violence and JuvenileJustice

2014, Vol. 12(3) 191-208

ªThe Author(s) 2013

Reprints and permission:

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DOI: 10.1177/1541204013495900

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intervention. Gang members tend to have more risk factors across more domains than non-gang

youth, but seem to share similar risk factors with delinquent offenders (i.e., Esbensen, Peterson, Tay-

lor, & Freng, 2010). Currently, there is no clear identification of specific risk factors across or within

developmental stages that can accurately predict gang membership (Howell & Egley, 2005). Such

findings may pose problems in the prevention and intervention arenas which ideally should be able

to translate theoretical findings into practical applications.

Gang prevention programs generally have not achieved widespread success in terms of intended

results (Fisher, Montgomery, & Gardner, 2008; Klein & Maxson, 2006). Program failure may be due

to lack of enough theoretical knowledge to guide practices; an absence of theoretical grounding; a

consequence of gang member misidentification; and/or because of fidelity and efficacy issues. Con-

versely, some programs not directly focused on gangs have been shown to have gang suppression

effects, particularly in the school realm (i.e., Tremblay, Masse, Pagani, & Vitaro, 1996).

Jointly, these findings seem to indicate that there may be underlying similarities between gang

and non-gang, particularly delinquent, youth. This, in turn, suggests a closer examination of the dif-

ferences and similarities between gang and non-gang youth for the purposes of theoretical elabora-

tion and program development. Given research that consistently shows gang youth are a part of the

school population (Arciaga, Sakamoto, & Jones, 2010; Monti, 1993; Naber, May, Decker, Minor, &

Wells, 2006), schools appear to be an important study location. The present study connects research

strands from the risk factor field with school-based programming to better understand how to

address the risks and needs of youth in school. Two research questions are asked: First, do youth

who claim gang membership form a distinct risk group in the high school realm? Second, what

implications do these findings have for prevention, intervention, and policy? Risk factor literature

on gangs is reviewed first, followed by what is known about gangs and programming in schools.

Descriptions of gangs in the study location and the data and methods are then presented, followed

by results and implications.

Risk Factor Approach

Theoretical work has begun to tease out potential differences between gang and non-gang youth

through an examination of risk factors. Risk factor approaches attempt to distinguish possible gang

members from other youth particularly for prevention and intervention purposes (Hawkins et al.,

1998; Hill, Howell, Hawkins, & Battin-Pearson, 1999; Howell & Egley, 2005). Research has found

that there is a great deal of overlap between risk factors for serious delinquency and gang member-

ship, however. In recent years, Howell (2012) and Klein and Maxson (2006) have comprehensively

reviewed the risk factor literature related to gangs, while Decker, Melde, and Pyrooz (2013) have

summarized these findings.

Howell’s (2012) overview examined risk factors identified in major longitudinal studies for

delinquency, violence, and gang involvement. Looking at risk factors measured between ages 12 and

17, he isolated approximately 50 risk factors for delinquency across the individual, family, school,

community, and peer domains, nearly two thirds of which also have been identified as risk factors

for gang affiliation. Overall, his analysis reinforced the finding that the accumulation of risk factors,

rather than the presence of specific risk factors, across ecological domains of youths’ lives (individ-

ual, family, peer, school, and community) is one key to understanding gang and non-gang differ-

ences (see also Hill et al., 1999).

Kleinand Maxson (2006) consideredrisk factor studiesconducted since 1990 thatreported results for

youththemselves and theirimmediate family members.Overall, deviantpeer groups showedsubstantial

support across studies. Only three riskfactors in the individual domain were consistently supportedas

precursorsof gang membership acrossstudies: negative life events,such as illness, nondelinquentbeha-

vioral problems, such as impulsivity, and positive attitude toward delinquent behavior. These factors,

192 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 12(3)