Sex Discrimination

• Author: Laura M. Franze
• Pages: 803-844

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CHAPTER 19

SEX DISCRIMINATION

BY LAURA M. FRANZE

19:1. SCOPE OF CHAPTER

19:2. TITLE VII AND TEXAS LABOR CODE GENDER DISCRIMINATION

PROHIBITIONS

A. Title VII

B. Chapter 21 of the Texas Labor Code

C. Statute of Limitations

D. Theories of Proof

1. Disparate Treatment

a. Generally

b. Elements and Burdens of Proof

c. Patterns or Practice

2. Disparate or Adverse Impact

a. Generally

b. Elements and Burdens of Proof

c. Application to Sex-Based Compensation Plan

3. Retaliation

E. The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification Defense

F. Remedies

19:3. THE EQUAL PAY ACT OF 1963

A. Coverage

B. Elements of an EPA Claim

C. Affirmative Defenses

19:4. PREGNANCY DISCRIMINATION

A. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978

B. Texas Labor Code Prohibition Against Pregnancy Discrimination

C. Proving Discrimination

D. Disability and Return to Work Issues

1. Medical Leave and the PDA

2. Relationship Between the PDA and the Americans With Disabilities Act

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E. Parental Leave: The Relationship Between the PDA and the FMLA

1. Coverage

2. Leave From Work

3. Returning to Work

4. Nursing Mothers

F. Fetal Protection Issues

G. Reproductive Discrimination

19:5. OTHER SPECIFIC TYPES OF SEX DISCRIMINATION

A. “Sex Plus” Policies

1. Sex Plus Marriage

2. Sex Plus Parenthood

3. Sex Plus Grooming and Appearance Policies

4. Sex Plus Race or Other Protected Classification

B. “No Fraternization” or “No-Spouse” Policies

C. Gender Concerns in Pre-Employment Interviews

D. Sex Discrimination Against Males

E. Sexual Preference Discrimination

F. Section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866

G. Special Industry “Glass Ceiling” Issues

19:6. SEXUAL STEREOTYPING

A. Common Sexual Stereotypes

B. Proving Sexual Stereotyping

1. Indirect Evidence

2. Direct Evidence

3. Expert Testimony

4. Issue Preclusion

C. Examples of Cases Alleging Sexual Stereotyping

1. Pre-Employment Interviews

2. Appearance/Grooming Standards

3. Glass Ceiling Cases

19:7. DAMAGES ISSUES IN INDIVIDUAL SEX DISCRIMINATION CASES

A. Compensatory Damages

B. Mental Anguish Damages

C. Punitive Damages

D. Mitigation of Damages

E. Limits on Damages Awards

1. Deductions From Back Pay

2. After-Acquired Evidence

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19:8. GENDER CLASS ACTION ISSUES

A. Historical Overview: Sex Segregation in Employment

1. Substantially Equal

2. Comparable Worth

3. Funneling

4. Shift Toward Plaintiffs

B. Lack of Interest Defense

APPENDIX

Appendix 19-1 Special Government Contractor Issues—DOL’s Glass Ceiling Initiative