Sex Differences in the Prevalence and Correlates of Handgun Carrying Among Adolescents in the United States

AuthorDyan McGuire,Christopher P. Salas-Wright,Sehun Oh,Katie J. Holzer,Matt DeLisi,Michael G. Vaughn
Date01 January 2019
Published date01 January 2019
DOI10.1177/1541204017739072
Subject MatterArticles
Article
Sex Differences in the Prevalence
and Correlates of Handgun
Carrying Among Adolescents
in the United States
Michael G. Vaughn
1
, Sehun Oh
2
, Christopher P. Salas-Wright
3
,
Matt DeLisi
4
, Katie J. Holzer
1
, and Dyan McGuire
1
Abstract
Handgun carrying is associated with a wide range of delinquent behaviors, but very little is known
about sex differences in this behavior and current trends in handgun carrying in the United States.
Using data from the 2002 to 2015 National Study of Drug Use and Health surveys, we found that the
prevalence of handgun carrying among girls nearly doubled from 0.9% to 1.7% with most of this
increase seen among non-Hispanic White and Hispanic girls. Although boys are more likely to carry
handguns, approximately 20% of the total handgun carrying by adolescents in the United States
occurs among girls. Both male and female adolescents who have carried a handgun in the past year
evince a behavioral profile that is characterized by substance use, versatile delinquency, elevated risk
propensity, and substantial school and family problems. However, adjusted odds ratios are con-
sistently higher for females, suggesting that girls who engage in handgun carrying represent an
important subgroup of potentially pernicious offenders that should be targeted for primary and
tertiary prevention and juvenile justice system oversight.
Keywords
handgun carrying, gender, adolescence, delinquency, guns, female delinquents
One of the leading causes of mortality among youth in the United States is deaths attributable to
firearms (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Given the lethality of interpersonal
disputes when handguns are present (Braga, 2012; Caudill & Trulson, 2016; DeLisi, Piquero, &
Cardwell, 2016; Farrington, Loeber, Stallings, & Homish, 2012; Reich, Culross, & Behrman, 2002)
coupled with the diminished maturation of executive decision-making common in young people,
1
School of Social Work, College for Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, USA
2
Steve Hicks School of Social Work, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
3
School of Social Work, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
4
Criminal Justice Studies, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Michael G. Vaughn, School of Social Work, College for Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University, Tegeler Hall,
3550 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63103, USA.
Email: mvaughn9@slu.edu
Youth Violence and JuvenileJustice
2019, Vol. 17(1) 24-41
ªThe Author(s) 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/1541204017739072
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handgun carrying among adolescents is a serious public health and policy concern (Barry, McGinty,
Vernick, & Webster, 2015; Blum, 2001; Braga, 2012; Fowler, Dahlberg, Haileyesus, & Annest,
2015; Kleck, 2015; Muula, Rudatsikira, & Siziya, 2008; O’Toole & Fondacaro, 2017; Siegel et al.,
2014; Welsh, Braga, & Sullivan, 2014; Wintemute, 2015a, 2015b). While it is well established that
male adolescents are more likely to carry handguns (Vaughn, Perron, Abdon, Olate, & Wu, 2012)
and engage in antisocial behavior generally (Eme, 2010), relatively less is known regarding the
prevalence and correlates of handgun carrying among female adolescents. This is an important
oversight as girls who carry handguns may also be at increased risk for a host of other developmental
problems besides serious delinquency, such as early pregnancy and motherhood, that may serve to
increase the probability for intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors (Loughran, Reid,
Collins, & Mulvey, 2016). As such, careful examination of sex differences in handgun carrying
using nationally representative data is badly needed.
Research Context
Multiple surveys at both the local and national level have measured the prevalence of handgun
carrying/ownership in female adolescents. Nationally, the prevalence rates for female youths range
from 1.1%to 2%(Argys, Rees, Averett, & Witoonchart, 2006; Kann et al., 2016; Springer, Kelder,
Orpinas, & Baumler, 2007; Vaughn et al., 2012). The divergence observed in these ranges reflects
variation in how surveys measure handgun prevalence. Community-based studies many of which
focus on students attending inner-city schools reveal higher rates of handgun carrying compared to
rates identified in available national-level data. In a sample of students from inner-city high schools,
11%of females reported carrying a gun outside of school (Sheley, McGee, & Wright, 1992), and 8%
of 7th graders from another of set of inner-city schools reported carrying a concealed gun (Hemen-
way, Prothrow-Stith, Bergstein, Ander, & Kennedy, 1996). Additional prevalence studies that have
focused on African American youth (Durant, Getts, Cadenhead, & Woods, 1995; Lane, Cunning-
ham, & Ellen, 2004; Steinman & Zimmerman, 2003) finding that 2%of females report persistent
past-year gun carrying (Steinman & Zimmerman, 2003), with 9%reporting intention to carry a gun
in the next 3 months (Lane et al., 2004). Despite several surveys conducted at the national and local
levels measuring handgun carrying in youths, it is difficult to compare their results and identify
trends given differences in questions used to measure prevalence. Depending on the survey, parti-
cipants may be asked about handgun carrying over different periods of time including lifetime, past
year, and past 30 days. Further, many surveys ask about weapons in general and do not provide
results on handgun carrying alone. A recent study used General Social Survey data from 1973 to
2010 to examine trends of handgun carrying among adult females revealing a decline in female gun
ownership (Koeppel & Nobles, 2017). Without similar studies conducted at the national level for
younger adults, it is unknown whether this trend also exists among female youths. In addition to the
importance of prevalence studies, identifying correla tes of handgun carrying among adolescent
females is critical. In general, several externalizing spectrum behaviors, such as alcohol, marijuana
or other drug use, selling drugs, aggression, fighting, and gang affiliation, and peer misbehavior have
been found to be correlates of handgun carrying among adolescents (Braga, 2012; Dong & Krohn,
2016; Kulig, Valentine, Griffith, & Ruthazer, 1998; Lizotte, Krohn, Howell, Tobin, & Howard,
2000; Salas-Wright, Nelson, Vaughn, Reingle Gonzalez, & Co´rdova, 2017; Tigri, Reid, Turner, &
Devinney, 2016; Vaughn et al., 2012; Vaughn, Salas-Wright, Boutwell, DeLisi, & Curtis, 2017).
The co-occurrence of handgun-carrying and externalizing behaviors is consistent with prominent
theoretical explanations that emphasize the importance of overarching antisocial propensity, dimin-
ished impulse control, and emotional dysregulation (Salas-Wright, Vaughn, & Reingle Gonzalez,
2016). More specifically, these theoretical constructs are expressed as low self-control (Gottfredson
& Hirschi, 1990), neuropsychological deficits that serve to inhibit executive functions (Moffitt,
Vaughn et al. 25

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