Sex Differences in Inmates: Anger, Sensitivity to Provocation and Family History of Imprisonment

• Author: Marta Bodecka-Zych,Anna Zajenkowska,Mary Bower Russa
• Published date: 01 September 2022
• Date: 01 September 2022
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049189
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049189

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2022, Vol. 66(12) 1327 –1342

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211049189

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Article

Sex Differences in Inmates:

Anger, Sensitivity to

Provocation and Family

History of Imprisonment

Marta Bodecka-Zych1, Anna Zajenkowska1,

and Mary Bower Russa2

Abstract

Little research has explored the role of aggression, anger, and family history of

incarceration as they relate to female offenders. The current study aimed to address this

gap in the literature by investigating these possible risk factors for incarceration among

both men and women. The survey involved 123 (61 female and 62 male) prisoners

convicted for violent crimes and a comparison group of 118 (60 female and 58 male)

adults from the community. We found that women (convicted and non-convicted) were

more sensitive to provocation than men, while community adults showed higher levels of

trait anger than prisoners. Detainees were more likely than community adults to have a

relative in prison. Although male and female inmates were equally likely to have a relative

in prison, they differed in their relation to the imprisoned relative. Male and female

prisoners showed increased risk for incarceration of same sex, first degree relatives

(father and brothers for men, and mothers for women). These results may contribute to

improved understanding of incarcerated populations. As such, this represents a critical

first step in creating recovery programs that are more gender appropriate.

Keywords

imprisonment, trait anger, sensitivity to provocation, family risk, gender differences

While women’s representation in prison settings continues to be relatively small

(Eurostat Statistic Explained, 2019; Prison Service, 2019), there has been a vivid pat-

tern of increasing representation of women in the prison system in the past few

1The Maria Grzegorzewska University, Warsaw, Poland

2Grand Valley State University, Allendale, MI, USA

Corresponding Author:

Marta Bodecka-Zych, The Maria Grzegorzewska University, Szczęśliwicka 40, Warsaw 02-353, Poland.

Email: mbsd1@aps.edu.pl

1049189IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211049189International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyBodecka-Zych et al.

research-article2021

1328 International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 66(12)

decades. In fact, the probability of imprisoning a female compared to a male has dou-

bled from 1980 to 2008 (Cauffman, 2008), yet females are often not a significant focus

in criminological research (Campaniello, 2019). Difficulties conducting prison

research, combined with a low rate of violent female inmates has led to a literature on

female prisoners that is, at times, incomplete, chaotic, and fragmented (Miszewski,

2016).

Questions about personal and environmental factors related to female crime are

among the issues that remain less resolved (Hollin & Palmer, 2006). Traditional poli-

cies to reduce crime have often not distinguished between women and men

(Campaniello, 2019; Suter et al., 2002) and prison programs and services designed for

males are often extended to female inmates with little alteration (Koons et al., 1997 ).

This is particularly problematic in light of the fact that both etiological contributors

(e.g., Asscher et al., 2015) and the needs of males and females may be very different

(e.g., Cauffman, 2008; Fields & Abrams, 2010; Hornsveld et al., 2018; Muller &

Kempes, 2016). For instance, a recent study of male and female prisoners in the UK

found that women report greater mental health needs in relation to men (e.g., personal-

ity disorders, mood disorders, PTSD; Tyler et al., 2019). Improved understanding of

female inmates could improve attempts at intervention in this population.

In considering risk factors that may contribute to recidivism for male and female

inmates, previous research among female prisoners convicted of violent crimes indi-

cates that women have lower levels of hostility than men, but higher levels of anger

(Hornsveld et al., 2018). Similar results, although from a sample involving relatively

few violent female participants (12% of females were violent in contrast to 54% of

males who were violent), were obtained by Suter et al. (2002). They identified inmate

gender differences with regard to both experience and expression of anger. In general,

their research using State Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI, Spielberger,

1991), found that women received higher scores than men on state anger, trait anger,

angry reaction, angry temperament, anger in, anger out and anger expression. Suter

et al. (2002) notes that a similar pattern, with females scoring higher on anger or anger

manifestation, has been found in clinical samples. Importantly, research to date sug-

gests that women and men from the community do not differ in terms of trait anger

(Archer, 2004; Averill, 1983; Deffenbacher et al., 1996).

Anger has been a considerable focus in the offender literature (e.g., Hornsveld

et al., 2018; Lim et al., 2011; Roberton et al., 2015) and it is a risk factor for violent

recidivism (Loza & Loza-Fanous, 1999). Studies to date suggest that the prison popu-

lation is characterized by higher levels of anger than is found in the general population

(Schönenberg & Jusyte, 2014; Suter et al., 2002), with level of anger in prison settings

approaching levels found in clinical samples (e.g., Jones et al., 1999). Anger is a pre-

dictor of aggressive behavior (Smith & Waterman, 2006) and plays a key role in hos-

tile or retaliatory violence (Browne & Howells, 1996; Holbrook, 1997). Anger is

associated with increased aggressive behavior under conditions of provocation

(Bettencourt et al., 2006), and provocation itself is among the most important causes

of aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).