Self-Disclosure in Criminal Justice: What Form Does It Take and What Does It Achieve?

• Author: Andrew Fowler,Chalen Westaby,Jake Phillips
• Published date: 01 September 2018
• Date: 01 September 2018
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17751528
• Subject Matter: Articles

751528IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X17751528International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyPhillips et al.
research-article2018
Article
International Journal of
Offender Therapy and
Self-Disclosure in Criminal
Comparative Criminology
2018, Vol. 62(12) 3890 –3909
Justice: What Form Does
© The Author(s) 2018
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It Take and What Does It
https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17751528
DOI: 10.1177/0306624X17751528
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Achieve?
Jake Phillips1 , Andrew Fowler1, and Chalen Westaby1
Abstract
Self-disclosure, the act of therapists revealing something about themselves in
the context of a professional relationship, has been linked with higher levels of
effectiveness when used by correctional workers. However, it is poorly defined
in both criminal justice policy and criminological research which has resulted in
a lack of understanding about the potential risks and benefits to practice and
practitioners. This article uses literature from other fields (namely, social work,
counselling, and psychotherapy) to lay out what forms self-disclosure might take in
the field of criminal justice. The article presents data that were generated as part
of a larger project on emotional labour in probation practice in England. It analyses
these data to argue that self-disclosure is used in two principle ways: to create and
enhance a therapeutic relationship and in a more correctional way which is focused
on criminogenic risk and need. We conclude by arguing that future research which
seeks to identify a link between certain skills and effective outcomes needs to start
with a much stronger definition of such skills as, otherwise, any effects are likely
to be lost.
Keywords
self-disclosure, probation, criminal justice, therapeutic relationship, correctionalism,
effective practice
1Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Corresponding Author:
Jake Phillips, Senior Lecturer in Criminology, Sheffield Hallam University, Heart of the Campus,
Collegiate Crescent, Sheffield S10 2BQ, UK.
Email: jake.phillips@shu.ac.uk

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Introduction
Self-disclosure, the act of revealing something about oneself to a client in the context
of a professional relationship, is considered a key skill in counselling and psycho-
therapy although it brings with it the risk of breaking roles and countertransference. It
is also considered critical to effective work with people engaged with the criminal
justice system, from arrestees to people in prison or under supervision. However, very
little is known about what criminal justice practitioners disclose, nor do we know
when and why they do it. There is a small body of literature which suggests that prac-
titioners’ use of self-disclosure leads to better outcomes for both voluntary and invol-
untary clients. However, the evidence is based on research which does not define
self-disclosure, nor acknowledge that, as we show in this article, it is a skill which
must be deployed judiciously and carefully. This is a significant gap in knowledge
considering the role it potentially plays in terms of effective practice.
This article begins with a literature review which defines self-disclosure and then
unpicks the evidence which has examined the use of self-disclosure in both criminal
justice and related fields. Then, by way of a case study approach, the article uses pro-
bation practitioners’ own descriptions of self-disclosure to shed light on the way in
which self-disclosure could be used in the broader context of criminal justice. The data
which are analysed were generated in a larger research project which sought to under-
stand the emotional labour of probation practice. We conclude by arguing that self-
disclosure is a complex skill which is used frequently by practitioners for various ends
and argue that any research which seeks to identify a correlation between the use of
self-disclosure and effective practice needs to build this into the research design.
Finally, we reflect on what probation practitioners’ use of this skill can tell us about a
changing probation culture, and consider the way in which a similar analysis might
shed light on similar developments in other criminal justice contexts.
Self-Disclosure: What Is It and Why Use It?
The literature review discusses what we know and do not know about self-disclosure.
It also provides us with a framework for understanding what self-disclosure is, and
how it might be used in criminal justice settings. Self-disclosure is broadly defined as
“verbal statements that reveal something personal about the therapist” (Knox & Hill,
2003, p. 530) rather than the sharing of information relating to the professional status
and qualifications of the social worker (Gibson, 2012). It is important to highlight that
self-disclosure is “one of the more controversial and misunderstood aspects of social
work practice” (Knight, 2012, p. 297).
Early discussions of self-disclosure focused on the need to maintain neutrality and
not expose any personal information or opinions (Freud, 1912). While this assumes
that practitioners have the ability not to self-disclose (Farber, 2006; Zur, 2007), this
tradition still remains prevalent and focuses on any self-disclosure by the practitioner
to be counterproductive which can reveal a lack of competence and open the door to
possible countertransference (Bloomgarden & Mennuti, 2009; Farber, 2006; Zur,

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International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 62(12)
2007). However, others have concluded that “by embracing the technique of self-
disclosure, the patient may feel the analyst’s emotion, without which emotion an
authentic analysis is impossible” (Billow, 2000, as cited in Knox & Hill, 2003, p.
531).
Those who align themselves with humanistic schools of thought view self-disclo-
sure as allowing not only an authentic relationship with the client but also argue that
it shows respect for the client and fosters transparency within the relationship
(Kaslow, Cooper, & Linsenberg, 1979; Robitschek & McCarthy, 1991). Moreover,
one might argue that it challenges the power disparity which is inherent to many
roles. They maintain that practitioner self-disclosure allows the client to have a frame
of reference in terms of any internal struggles they may have, display the human side
of practitioners, allow practitioners to act as role models (Lane & Hull, 1990), and
more equally distribute the power within practitioner–client relationships. There are
links here to Rogers’s (1951) client-centred therapy in which self-disclosure can
achieve “warmth, empathy and genuineness” (pp. 348-349). Self-disclosure is also
seen as beneficial by those with a cognitive-behavioural orientation. Here, self-dis-
closure can strengthen the relationship, or therapeutic alliance, between practitioner
and client and encourage client change. This is achieved by challenging a client’s
perception of themselves and others—changing the way they think—as well as mod-
elling coping techniques and behaviour which clients are encouraged to emulate
(Goldfried, Burckell, & Eubanks-Carter, 2003).
It is therefore well established that self-disclosure occurs in the context of any
therapeutic relationship and that it can take several forms. Moreover, the relevance to
criminal justice practice is clear, be that for those with a humanistic or cognitive-
behavioural approach. Murphy and Ord (2013) describe “realms of self-disclosure” (p.
335) which they characterise in five ways. Firstly, they refer to appearance, which is
essentially what a practitioner wears and displays on their person and might also
include the way they arrange their work space. The second realm of self-disclosure is
the beliefs, attitudes, and values presented both explicitly and implicitly by the practi-
tioner. Third to be described is behaviour. This is the conduct of the practitioner which
reveals their reactions and/or lack of reaction which, in turn, shows their expectations
of other. The fourth realm is feelings which Murphy and Ord (2013) maintain can be
both verbal and nonverbal with the latter occurring through facial expressions and
body language. The final realm of self-disclosure is experiences, which is the recollec-
tion of positive or negative knowledge, memories, and motivation of the practitioner.
Knox and Hill (2003) describe seven subtypes of disclosure which they assert are
“used at different times and can have different impacts on the therapy process” (p.
530). These are described as disclosures of fact, disclosures of feelings, disclosures of
insight, disclosures of strategy, disclosures of reassurance or support, disclosures of
challenge, and disclosures of immediacy. Of particular interest is a type of self-disclo-
sure they describe as “here and now” disclosures. “Here and now” disclosures or dis-
closures of “immediacy” (Knox & Hill, 2003, p. 536) are “self-revealing” (Knight,
2012, p. 298) in that they are reactions by the practitioner to what is happening during
an interaction with the client. These types of interventions are regarded as helpful in

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that they provide transparency to the client by imparting insight into the practitioner’s
thoughts and reactions to the client as it happens during the session (Knight, 2012). In
contrast, “there and then” disclosures, or “self-involving disclosures” (Knight, 2012,
p. 298), are disclosures where the practitioner describes...