Self-Control and Immigrant Adolescent Victimization
| Date | 01 July 2019 |
| DOI | 10.1177/2153368717702701 |
| Published date | 01 July 2019 |
| Author | Anthony A. Peguero,Egbert Zavala |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Race and Justice
2019, Vol. 9(3) 304-329
Self-Control and Immigrant
ª The Author(s) 2017
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Adolescent Victimization
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DOI: 10.1177/2153368717702701
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Egbert Zavala1 and Anthony A. Peguero2
Abstract
There is a growing body of research that reveal immigrant adolescents have fewer
experiences with violence than their native-born peers in the United States. Further-
more, self-control is associated with adolescent victimization and there is documented
sex differences associated with the relationship between the two. Few studies explore
how self-control could explain the relationship between immigrant status and victimi-
zation. This study will explore whether self-control moderates the likelihood of female
and male immigrant adolescent victimization. Drawing on data from the Gang Resistance
Education and Training Program, results show that immigrant adolescents are not more
likely to experience victimization, self-control predicted the odds of victimization for
females only, and the link between immigration status and victimization is not condi-
tioned by self-control. The implications of the relationship between self-control,
immigrant status, sex, and adolescent victimization are discussed more generally.
Keywords
general theory of crime, immigration and crime, immigration, victimization, Latino/
Hispanic Americans
A number of studies have shown that immigrant adolescents, compared to their native-
born counterparts, are less likely to engage in delinquency (Butcher & Piehl, 1998;
Dinovitzer, Hagam, & Levi, 2009; Wright & Rodriguez, 2013). Some research
studies, however, suggest that immigrant adolescents are more likely to experience
victimization (Jiang & Peterson, 2012; Koo, Peguero, & Shekarkhar, 2012a; Rojas-
Gaona, Hong, & Peguero, 2016; Sulkowski, Bauman, Wright, Nixion, & Davis, 2014).
Scholars reason that American cultural norms can generate role strain, marginalization,
and culture conflict that, in return, increases the likelihood of victimization (see Jiang &
1 University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
2 Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Egbert Zavala, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 WestUniversity Avenue, El Paso, TX 79968, USA.
Email: egbertz@utep.edu
Zavala and Peguero
305
Peterson, 2012; Peguero, 2009). While this reasoning has found support in the literature,
other correlates of victimization, as documented in the criminological literature, like
low self-control, have yet to be examined to investigate immigrant adolescent victi-
mization (Luo & Bouffard, 2016).
It may be erroneous to assume that marginalization and culture conflict (among other
things) are the sole cause of victimization among immigrant adolescents without first
empirical testing other established factors. Furthermore, studies have also established
that there are sex differences in regard to levels of risk for victimization, with males
experiencing higher levels of victimization than females (Koo et al., 2012a; Peguero,
2013). In addition, studies have generally found that males have lower self-control than
females. Given that there are sex differences in how male and female immigrants are
socialized, the impact of self-control on the relation between immigrant status and
adolescent victimization is likely to vary by sex. However, this area of research has
remained unexplored. Our study attempts to fill this gap in the current study.
As noted by Peguero (2013), few criminological theories have been applied to
examine the link between serious victimization and immigrant status (Jiang &
Peterson, 2012; Koo, Peguero, & Shekarkhar, 2012b; Peguero, 2011). This is an
important area of research for at least two reasons. First, serious victimization among
adolescents is known to have serious and detrimental effects on victims, such as drug
use, future involvement in criminal behavior, dropping out of school, and even suicide
(Finkelhor, 2008). It is essential for scholars and school administrators to completely
understand the etiology of victimization in order to make schools a safe and healthy
place to learn for everyone. Second, immigrant adolescents are one of the fastest
growing segments of the population and their increase presence makes them an
important population of study for criminologists and other scholars (Suarez-Orozco,
Suarez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2007).
To accomplish this goal, we use data from the Gang Resistance Education and
Training (GREAT) Program to address one research question: Does self-control
explain variation in female and male immigrant adolescent victimization? This
study first presents a review of the pertinent research and a conceptual argument that
suggests the links between immigrant status, sex, and self-control on serious victi-
mization. Next, the methods and data used in the current study are discussed. Finally,
this study discusses policy implementation in a nation with a rapidly growing popu-
lation of immigrant adolescents. We follow these steps in order to test two hypotheses
to address our overarching research question: (1) immigrant status will be negatively
related to female and male victimization and (2) self-control will moderate the rela-
tionship between immigrant status and female and male victimization.
Literature Review
Immigrant Adolescent Violence
The United States has approximately 43 million foreign-born people, representing
approximately 13% of the U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). As a result,
306
Race and Justice 9(3)
25% of all adolescents in the United States have at least one immigrant parent and the
proportion is expected to rise to 33% within 30 years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).
A growing number of researchers have examined how immigrant adolescents are
adapting to U.S. culture and society. Studies reveal that immigrant adolescents have
decreased psychological and health problems, educational failure, violence, and
victimization in comparison to their native-born counterparts (Desmond & Kubrin,
2009; DiPietro & McGloin, 2012; Peguero, 2013; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001, 2014;
Sampson, 2008).
In a recent study, Luo and Bouffard (2016) report that some immigrants may want
to assimilate into their new culture from their host country, and this process may
impact their behaviors, including engaging in criminal behavior and victimization. It
has been suggested that immigrants who assimilate into their new culture may have
their family bonds broken and parental supervision can decline (Bui & Thongniramol,
2005). As we will discuss in greater detail later, broken family bonds and a lack of
parental supervision can all influence a youth’s level of self-control, given that
ineffective parental practices is the cause of low self-control (Gottfredson & Hirschi,
1990). This suggests that immigrant status is associated with victimization indirectly
through self-control (Luo & Bouffard, 2016). Similarly, not all immigrants are vic-
timized, postulating that the link between immigrant status and victimization can be
either lessened or heightened by an adolescent’s level of self-control. Although Luo
and Bouffard (2016) do find that self-control does matter toward understanding
immigrant adolescent victimization, they did not explore the distinctions between
female and male immigrant adolescents.
Conceptually, sex matters with experiences associated with adolescent violence
and victimization. Because social norms are gendered, the expectations imposed on
female adolescents with immigrant parents in comparison to their male counterparts
can explain their divergent experiences (Feliciano & Rumbaut, 2005; Portes &
Rumbaut, 2001, 2014; Zhou & Bankston, 2006). For example, immigrant parents
exercise greater social control over their daughters, which arguably results in immi-
grant females perceiving to have higher standards for good behavior within their
family, community, and schools (DiPietro & Cwick, 2014; Feliciano & Rumbaut, 2005;
Lo´pez, 2003; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001, 2014; Zhou & Bankston, 2006). Traditional
gender roles in immigrant families are also associated with divergent sex pathways.
Some immigrant families do not allow their daughters to take advantage of all the
educational opportunities available to them because they do not want them to attend
schools that are far from the family or schools that they perceive as lax in discipline,
even if those schools are the most prestigious or academically rigorous (Feliciano &
Rumbaut, 2005; Lo´pez, 2003; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001, 2014). In all, it is suggested that
these events will instill higher levels of self-control for females than males.
Looking at males, it is argued that second-generation immigrant males are often
“criminalized” by school personnel, law enforcement, and community residents,
which can lead to antagonistic school and community interpersonal relationships
(Feliciano & Rumbaut, 2005; Lo´pez, 2003; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001, 2014; Zhou &
Bankston, 2006). Thus, expectations of educational failure and success, academic
Zavala and Peguero
307
pursuits and attainments, “good” or “bad” behavior within schools and communities,
sexual activity, positive peer associations, gang involvement, and experiences with
violence are all found to have distinct sex patterns for immigrant adolescents (DiPietro
& Cwick, 2014; Feliciano & Rumbaut, 2005; Koo et al., 2012a, 2012b; Lo´pez, 2003;
Portes & Rumbaut, 2001, 2014; Shekarkhar & Peguero, 2011; Zhou & Bankston,
2006).
Adolescent Victimization
Numerous studies have...
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