Representative Budgeting: Women Mayors and the Composition of Spending in Local Governments
| Published date | 01 March 2019 |
| Author | Kendall D. Funk,Andrew Q. Philips |
| DOI | 10.1177/1065912918775237 |
| Date | 01 March 2019 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
research-article2018
Article
Political Research Quarterly
2019, Vol. 72(1) 19 –33
Representative Budgeting: Women
© 2018 University of Utah
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Mayors and the Composition of
https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918775237
DOI: 10.1177/1065912918775237
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Spending in Local Governments
Kendall D. Funk1 and Andrew Q. Philips2
Abstract
One potential consequence of increasing women’s numeric representation is that women elected officials will behave
differently than their men counterparts and improve women’s substantive representation. This study examines
whether electing women to local offices changes how local government expenditures are allocated in ways that
benefit women. Using compositional expenditure data from more than 5,400 Brazilian municipalities over eight years,
we find significant differences in the ways men and women mayors allocate government expenditures. Our findings
indicate that women mayors spend more on traditionally feminine issues, and less on traditionally masculine issues,
relative to men mayors. In regard to specific policy areas, we find that women spend more on women’s issues,
including education, health care, and social assistance, and less on masculine issues, including transportation and urban
development, relative to men mayors. We further find that women’s legislative representation significantly influences
the allocation of expenditures as a larger percentage of women councilors increases spending on traditionally feminine
issues, as well as education, health care, and social assistance, relative to other policy issues. These findings indicate
that women local elected officials improve women’s substantive representation by allocating a larger percentage of
expenditures to issues that have historically and continue to concern women in Brazil.
Keywords
women’s representation, gender, expenditures, Brazil, municipal, finance
Women remain underrepresented in nearly all countries
numbers of women in political institutions has conse-
and all levels of government around the world.1 However,
quences for both policy and women’s substantive repre-
women’s representation has increased in recent years.
sentation. If women do behave differently than men, the
Over the past two decades, the percentage of women in
case for improving women’s numeric representation only
national legislatures has nearly doubled, from an average
strengthens, as electing women will result in different
of 12 percent in 1997 to 23 percent in 2017 (Inter-
outcomes than electing men.
Parliamentary Union 2017). Women’s representation as
The implications of increasing women’s numeric rep-
presidents and prime ministers is improving as well
resentation extend beyond the national level of govern-
(Jalalzai 2013), as is women’s representation in subna-
ment. At the local level, increasing women’s representation
tional governments, though the evidence is more limited
could fundamentally reshape important outcomes includ-
(Escobar-Lemmon and Funk 2018; Sundström and ing, but not limited to, the quality of women’s substantive
Stockemer 2015; Vengroff, Nyiri, and Fugiero 2003).
representation. Local governments, especially those in
Women’s presence in these political institutions is vital
decentralized countries, are responsible for important
for achieving the democratic ideals of fairness and equal-
functions such as allocating government expenditures,
ity. Even if women do not behave differently than men,
collecting taxes, delivering public services, managing
their presence matters. Women’s presence can have sym-
bolic consequences and shape important perceptions,
1Arizona State University, Glendale, USA
such as views of women (Alexander 2012; Kerevel and
2University of Colorado Boulder, USA
Atkeson 2015), satisfaction with democracy (Schwindt-
Bayer 2010), or trust in government (Hinojosa, Fridkin,
Corresponding Author:
Andrew Q. Philips, Department of Political Science, University of
and Kittilson 2017). Yet recent increases in women’s
Colorado Boulder, 333 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0333, USA.
political presence beg the question of whether increasing
Email: andrew.philips@colorado.edu
20
Political Research Quarterly 72(1)
land usage, maintaining city infrastructure, and creating
body of research. On the one hand, there might not be any
and implementing public policies. Given the role of local
significant consequences. The equality view of women’s
governments in overseeing these important functions and
representation suggests that if women are equal partici-
their potential to shape policies that matter to women, it is
pants in the political process, there will not be observable
important to study the consequences of women’s repre-
differences in the policies enacted by men and women
sentation within the local context.
(Lovenduski 2005). Under conditions of full equality,
This study offers several new innovations. First, we
women would not be sidelined to working in certain areas
contribute to the growing body of knowledge about the
(Heath, Schwindt-Bayer, and Taylor-Robinson 2005), but
consequences of women’s representation by examining
instead able to focus on a diverse set of policy issues, as
whether increasing women’s local representation changes
do men representatives, and participate equally in the
the spending priorities of local governments. We use
governing process. This type of equality would result in
panel data from Brazilian municipalities to examine
no observable differences in the types of policies adopted
whether women mayors allocate government expendi-
by men and women policy makers.
tures differently than men mayors, and specifically
On the other hand, research shows that political insti-
whether women mayors spend more in policy areas that
tutions are gendered institutions (Acker 1992), meaning
concern women citizens. Second, we argue that budget
that women elected officials often do not operate under
allocations reflect policy priorities. Given the constraints
conditions of full gender equality. Furthermore, a large
of local government budgets, allocating more money to
body of evidence shows that women typically have dif-
one area often requires a decrease in another. If women
ferent preferences and behaviors than men, and that
mayors allocate more expenditures to policy areas that
women elected officials are more likely to act in the
disproportionately affect women, this indicates that they
interests of women citizens.2 In terms of preferences,
are prioritizing the needs of women above other issues,
women state legislators in the United States are more
and also engaging in substantive representation.
likely to prioritize issues that have traditionally con-
Using recent innovations in modeling compositional
cerned women, such as health care, social services, fam-
variables, we analyze expenditures in multiple policy
ily and children’s issues, and the environment (Little,
areas simultaneously. The findings indicate that women
Dunn, and Deen 2001). Studies of Latin American legis-
mayors allocate a larger proportion of expenditures to
lators also indicate that women place greater priority on
traditionally feminine issues and a smaller proportion to
issues related to women, children, and families
traditionally masculine issues overall, compared with
(Schwindt-Bayer 2010).
men mayors. Furthermore, these differences persist
In terms of behaviors, research finds that women leg-
when analyzing more specific policy areas. Women
islators participate more in debates about policy issues
mayors allocate more to education, health care, and
that concern women (Funk, Morales, and Taylor-
social assistance, compared with men mayors, by Robinson 2017; Osborn and Mendez 2010; Taylor-
decreasing the proportion of spending in areas such as
Robinson and Heath 2003). They are also more likely to
transportation and urban development. We also find that
initiate bills related to women’s rights, children, and
the percent women city councilors impacts expenditure
families (Jones 1997; Schwindt-Bayer 2010; Taylor-
decisions despite the fact that the council has little direct
Robinson and Heath 2003) and social issues, including
influence over municipal budgets. A larger percentage of
education, health care, and welfare (Schwindt-Bayer
women councilors results in greater expenditures in tra-
2010; Swers 2014). Women chief executives are more
ditionally feminine areas overall, as well as increases in
likely to appoint women to top bureaucratic positions,
education, health care, and social assistance spending at
such as cabinet ministers at the national level (Reyes-
the expense of spending on administration and other
Housholder 2016) and public managers at the local level
areas. These findings suggest that increasing women’s
(Funk, Silva, and Escobar-Lemmon, 2017). A number
representation as mayors and city councilors in Brazil
of additional studies find that increasing women’s rep-
will likely improve women’s substantive representation
resentation results in the adoption of policy programs
as women local officials are more likely to prioritize
that favor women’s substantive interests. Examples
spending in areas that continue to disproportionately
include the provision of child care in...
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