Repentance in the Quran, Hadith, and Ibn Qudama's Kitab al-Tawwabin.

• Author: Reynolds, Gabriel Said

Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi's (d. 620/1223) work Kitab al-Tawwabin (The book of the penitents) tells tales of angels, prophets, and Companions of Prophet Muhammad who sin, repent, and receive forgiveness. Through the centuries no little controversy has surrounded the work. Whereas most Muslim scholars in Ibn Qudama's day held that prophets (at least after their prophetic mission) did not sin, he includes numerous accounts of their sins. (1) As we argue in this article, for Ibn Qudama the mark of righteousness consists fundamentally in recognizing sin and the need for repentance, and not in avoiding sin altogether.

We begin with a discussion of the concept of repentance in the Quran and hadith. We then introduce KT, discuss certain aspects of the work, and argue that Ibn Qudama's spiritual vision involves a central place for human striving in the face of evil and sin. This vision, we will argue, is connected to Ibn Qudama's high regard for the Sufi way.

REPENTANCE IN THE QURAN AND HADITH

Repentance is one of the key concepts in quranic discourse. The notion of repentance is generally expressed in the Quran with the root t-w-b, the verbal noun of which is tawba. (2) The root t-w-b is used in different forms, connoting mainly one's turning to God from evil, i.e., sin. However, the Quran's use of this root is relatively general. It does not specify any particular sin or particular ritual for the act of tawba. As Atif Khalil notes, the act of tawba in the Quran involves seeking divine forgiveness (istighfar). (3) Nonetheless, whereas istighar connotes specifically seeking forgiveness, tawba can refer to the faithful's active move toward God in repentance of anything considered unacceptable by his decree. Here the unacceptable can be as general as improper social behavior (Q 24:31) or pride (Q 16:23). Tawba is also highlighted as a prerequisite for the believers' salvation (Q 66:8).

Yet the Quran simultaneously identifies tawba as an act of God. In fact, tawba is a mutual interaction between God and the faithful. The Quran uses the verbal phrase taba ila for humans who "return" to God and the verbal phrase taba 'ala (e.g., Q 3:128; 33:24) for God's "return" to humans (usually after their repentance, although Q 9:118 speaks of God's "returning" to sinners so they might "return" to him). (4) Thus tawba is not simply to be made equivalent to repentance, but seems to involve the mutually deliberate act of turning, and re-turning. (5)

Other quranic terms express overlapping concepts: the Quran uses n-w-b in the fourth form (e.g., Q 13:27; 30:31, 33; 31:15; 34:9; 39:8, 17, 54; 40:13; 42:13; 50:8, 33; 60:4) to refer to those who leave polytheism and embrace Islam; it uses a-w-b (perhaps closer to being "tender-hearted") to refer to those who turn to God and receive forgiveness: "Surely God leads astray whomever he pleases and guides to himself whoever turns (to him) (yahdi ilayhi man anaba)" (Q 13:27; cf. 42:13); (6) in Q 30:41, the root r-j-' may indicate a return to God. Finally, the root n-d-m (generally understood to refer to "regret") may express an element of the process of repentance. It appears in Q 5:31, which speaks of Cain (not mentioned by name) as min al-nadimin ("among the regretful") after the killing of his brother. In the following section, however, we will focus on the root t-w-b in light of its central place in the work of Ibn Qudama.

The God of the Quran demands repentance even from a believing audience: "You who believe! Turn to God in sincere repentance. It may be that your Lord will absolve you of your evil deeds and cause you to enter Gardens through which rivers flow" (Q 66:8). This verse, which addresses a collective audience, bespeaks an anthropology by which everyone is in need of repentance. Humans, apparently, cannot avoid sin altogether; all believers, even prophets, need to return to God at some point (Q 2:37; 7:143; 21:87).

This conception of humans as inevitably (or perhaps innately) sinful is also suggested by certain categorical declarations about human nature: "The love of sinful desires has been made appealing to humans" (Q 3:14; our translation); "The human was created weak" (Q 4:28); "The human calls for evil (as if) calling for good, (for) the human is (always) hasty" (Q 17:11). This need for repentance seems to extend even to the Prophet and his Companions: in Q 9:117 we read: "Certainly God has turned (in forgiveness) to the prophet, and (to) the emigrants and the helpers who followed him in the hour of hardship." One might note as well Q 42:10, which has Muhammad return (unibu) to God.

Earlier prophets too are in need of divine forgiveness. God returns to (taba 'ala) Adam (Q 2:37; 20:122) and Abraham and Ishmael pray that God will return to them (tub 'alayna) in Q 2:128. In Q 11:75 Abraham is mitnib, while Moses repents for asking God to show himself (Q 7:143). David is awwab in Q 38:17, and in Q 38:24 he prostrates after having repented (anaba). Solomon is also awwab (38:30; see also 38:34, anaba), as is Job (Q 38:44). Jonah seems to repent for his anger against God in a declaration of regret (Q 21:87).

As a rule, human tawba precedes, and is a condition of, divine tawba (Q 2:160; 5:39). In 0 2:54 the Israelites, after the sin of the (golden) calf, are told to return (tubu) to God that he might turn to them (taba 'alaykum). (7) The Quran suggests that God actively desires to return to humans in forgiveness. (8) In one passage of surat al-Nisa' (4) the Quran comes close to portraying divine pathos. While on eighteen occasions the Quran describes God as ghaniyy, "self-sufficient," here God appears to be troubled by human sin--indeed, almost unhappy with the sinful condition of humans that separates them from him. God thus desires, almost yearns for, their repentance:

God wishes (yuridu) to make things clear to you, and to guide you in the customary ways of those who were before you, and to turn toward you (in forgiveness) (yatuba 'alaykum). God is knowing, wise. God wishes (yuridu) to turn toward you (in forgiveness) (yatuba 'alaykum), but those who follow (their) lusts wish you to swerve far away. God wishes to lighten (your burdens) for you, (for) the human was created weak (Q 4:26-28). Q 9:118 (alluded to above) seems to develop this idea still further. This passage (traditionally connected to the story of the Muslims' campaign against the Byzantines at Tabuk in 9h), has God refer to three individuals who "stayed behind." Regarding these three the Quran declares that God first returned to them (taba 'alayhim) in order that they might return to him (yatubu). (9)

God's desire for repentance is expressed with the divine name al-tawwab (also used of humans--Q 2:222--who repent repeatedly) which appears at the end of the verse (also Q 4:64; 24:11; 29:12). God, in his very nature, desires to return to the believers; humans for their part are called to return to God. Among the various descriptions of believers in Q 9:112 is ta'ibun, those who "return (in repentance)." Among the virtuous qualities of the wives whom Muhammad could marry (in place of his misbehaving wives) is ta'ibat (Q 66:5). Yet there are limits to God's willingness to accept repentance. He will not accept the repentance of the damned. The Quran repeatedly has God deny their appeals for mercy (Q 6:27; 7:53; 23:99-100; 26:102; 32:12; 35:37; 39:58; 42:44; 44:15). He also will not accept repentance of those in their death throes (Q 4:18), a teaching that seems to be expressed by an account that has Pharaoh repent as he is drowning in the sea and God sternly reject his repentance (Q 10:90-92).

Yet, if believers are sinners by virtue of their human nature, they are uniquely privileged to be offered the possibility of forgiveness upon repentance. Unbelievers are in a fundamentally different position. They must believe to receive forgiveness for their sins. The notion of repentance in the Quran is thus closely connected to the notion of belief, which reflects an intertwining of theological and ethical righteousness. For the Quran the denial of God's unique sovereignty is a moral question. Unbelievers are not only theologically misguided; they are also sinners by virtue of their unbelief. The Quran regards disbelief as the outcome of arrogance (Q 2:34) whereas God does not like those who are arrogant (Q 16:23). In fact, the arrogant lose the chance of repentance (Q 71:7). Accordingly, for the Quran there is no possibility that the repentance of unbelievers (as long as they remain in unbelief) for any act can be accepted.

Repentance for unbelievers, "hypocrites" (Q 4:145-46; 9:74), or apostates (Q 3:86-90) thus consists principally in the act of accepting Islam (condemnation awaits them otherwise). In Q 11:112 those who have "returned" (man taba) are simply those who have followed the Prophet (cf. Q 19:60; 25:70-71). Note, however, that Q 4:146 insists that hypocrites are also to reform themselves (aslahu) and "purify their religion." (10) For believers, taba means refraining from sins against other believers (24:4-5; 66:3-4; 49:11), accepting usury (2:278-79), or committing unintentional crimes (4:17; 6:54; 16:119). No one is above the need for repentance: "Turn to God (in repentance)--all (of you) (wa-tubu ila llah jami'an)--believers, so that you may prosper" (Q 24:31).

Despite being an important concept, the Quran is silent about rituals or instructions to be followed by the repentant. There are only two conditions: the faithful's repentance should be sincere and it should not be out of despair. Nonetheless, in light of the Quran's emphasis on this universal requirement for salvation it is not surprising that the canonical collections of hadith include numerous traditions on repentance.

Hadith material, however, goes beyond linguistic analysis and tends to create a tangible narrative context meant to illustrate repentance. Sahih Muslim includes a section entirely dedicated to repentance (kitab al-tawba) and a...