Reentry in Practice: Sexual Offending, Self-Narratives, and the Implications of Stigma in Norway

• Published date: 01 July 2023
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049184
• Author: Ingeborg Jenssen Sandbukt
• Date: 01 July 2023
• Subject Matter: Articles

https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211049184

International Journal of

Offender Therapy and

Comparative Criminology

2023, Vol. 67(9) 930 –951

© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/0306624X211049184

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Article

Reentry in Practice: Sexual

Offending, Self-Narratives,

and the Implications of

Stigma in Norway

Ingeborg Jenssen Sandbukt1,2

Abstract

Reentering society after serving a prison sentence involves many challenges and

particularly so for one of the most stigmatized groups in modern society: people who

have sexually offended. While most research on their reentry has been conducted in

countries with Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN) laws, this study

used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to qualitatively investigate the

accounts and experiences of men released from prison after serving a sex offense

conviction in Norway (n = 8). Results showed that despite less restrictive policies and

a total absence of SORN laws, the social stigma linked to being convicted of such

crimes severely affected the men. To some degree, they all experienced feelings of

stress or anxiousness and they withdrew and isolated more. Their narratives highlight

a need for increased social support and recognition from others in the reentry

process. Subjective and societal consequences as well as practical implications are

discussed.

Keywords

sexual offending, reentry, qualitative, stigma, narratives

1Oslo University Hospital, Norway

2University of Oslo, Norway

Corresponding Author:

Ingeborg Jenssen Sandbukt, Department of Mental Health and Addiction, Centre for Research and

Education in Forensic Psychiatry, Oslo University Hospital, PO Box 4956, Nydalen, N-0424 Oslo,

Norway.

Email: injesa@ous-hf.no

1049184IJOXXX10.1177/0306624X211049184International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologySandbukt

research-article2021

Sandbukt 931

Introduction

The nature of sexual crime evokes potent emotional responses from the public that

exceed those of other forms of criminality (Kahn et al., 2017). “Sex offender” is argu-

ably among the most stigmatizing labels in modern societies (Willis, 2018; Willis

et al., 2010). When imprisoned, those convicted of sexual offenses experience this

designated position at the bottom of the moral hierarchy (Ievins, 2014; Ievins &

Crewe, 2015; Ricciardelli & Spencer, 2014; Ugelvik, 2015). Upon reentry, the diffi-

culties inherent in their stigmatized position often intensify through experiencing

“othering” and exclusion from their communities (Pratt, 2016).

Most reentry research involving those with sexual convictions stems from the

United States and other countries where Sex Offender Registration and Notification

(SORN) laws have been implemented to promote public safety. So far, research has

not demonstrated any significant positive impact of SORN laws on recidivism rates

(Zgoba et al., 2018). Rather, researchers have identified several negative impacts of

public exposure and restrictions on housing and employment as structural barriers to

successful reintegration (Huebner et al., 2019; Levenson et al., 2007; Schultz, 2014;

Tewksbury, 2005). The social exclusion, fear, and shame experienced by those “on the

list” negatively affect their psychological well-being and may increase their risk for

reoffending (Bailey & Klein, 2018; Harris & Levenson, 2021). The growing body of

sexual offense reentry research has thus far largely focused on how social stigma

intensifies in the wake of increased structural stigma (Huebner et al., 2019). What we

still need to investigate is how social stigma affects the process of returning to society

with a sex offense conviction in a context such as Norway that lacks the structural

stigma represented by SORN laws.

Background and Theory

Labeling and Stigma

The negative consequences of labeling are well known and involve self-fulfilling

prophecy processes whereby individuals eventually internalize the label others have

ascribed to them: as Tannenbaum (1938, p. 20) noted, “The person will become the

thing he is described as being.” According to Becker (1963), a deviant or stigmatizing

label a person is known by can turn into his “master status,” meaning that the label will

override all other personal characteristics and lead others to treat him as though he is

generally, rather than specifically, deviant. (Because the vast majority of people con-

victed of sexual offenses are male, male pronouns will be used in this paper for expedi-

ency.) Such social “othering” processes whereby the deviant identification becomes

the controlling one is arguably the opposite of reintegration (Braithwaite, 1989) and lie

at the core of classical labeling theory (Becker, 1963; Lemert, 1951; Tannenbaum,

1938).

Such a deterministic pathway, where labeling produces further deviance, lacks

empirical support for those who have committed sexual offenses. International

research has repeatedly shown that, despite widespread labeling, recidivism rates are