Realism, Romanticism, and Politics in Mark Twain.

• Author: Byrne, William F.

Mark Twain and Irving Babbitt

Imagination shapes society and politics.

According to Irving Babbitt, the imagination plays an "all-important role in both literature and life." For Babbitt, society and politics are shaped by the imagination, because it is within the context of the imagination that one's reason and will inevitably must function. He explains that

man is cut off from immediate contact with anything abiding and therefore worthy to be called real, and condemned to live in an element of fiction or illusion, but he may ... lay hold with the aid of the imagination on the element of oneness that is inextricably blended with the manifoldness and change and to just that extent may build up a sound model for imitation. One tends to be an individualist with true standards ... only in so far as one understands the relation between appearance and reality--what the philosophers call the epistemological problem. [1]

Imaginative truth and error.

For Babbitt, the development of a sound ethical center involves a degree of imitation and adherence to standards. What Babbitt has in mind is not slavish imitation of artificial external models but the careful building up of sound models for imitation. To accomplish this, one must be solidly anchored in reality and able to glimpse what Babbitt calls "the one in the many." Claes Ryn has said that Babbitt's solution to the epistemological problem is "to move closer to the truth above all by training the imagination, which is intimately related to the will. This is done negatively by unmasking perversions, ... positively by discovering and absorbing the visions of the imaginative master-minds." [2] For Babbitt and Ryn, the work of artists and writers helps to shape one's imagination and, hence, one's will, which in turn further shapes the imagination. The shaping of the imagination may help one move closer to, or further from, truth. Works which move one toward truth are those which are anchored in reality. This does not mean that they flatly and indiscriminately portray a shallow empirical 'reality,' but that they possess a deep sense of the "oneness that is always changing." Such works help men to "find ... concrete modes of ordering their lives, individually and in social cooperation, which are directly experienced as conducive to happiness and a heightened sense of reality." [3]

If it is true that artists and writers have played, and continue to play, significant roles in shaping the American imagination, one of the most important influences must surely be that of Mark Twain. In addition to achieving enduring popularity and becoming a part of the American literary canon, Twain, and, in particular, his Adventures of Huckleberry Finn have been the subjects of extensive discourse in many fields of study, including political philosophy. The purpose of this article is to offer a unique interpretation of Twain, one that approaches his work from a perspective informed by the thought of Irving Babbitt. Twain and Babbitt have something in common: they both viewed the romantic imagination, at least in some of its forms, as failing to move man toward truth. In Rousseau and Romanticism Babbitt offers an excellent account of the nature of the romantic imagination and its influence on modern thought and politics. Various literary scholars have observed that "Twain's literary opinions have been ti ed to realism because they seem to be based on an ingrained hostility toward romantic literature ..." [4] Twain is typically classified as a member of the loosely defined 'school' of American Literary Realism associated with his friend William Dean Howells, although in recent years certain scholars have questioned the appropriateness of this classification. This question will be left for others to pursue. What is important here is that Twain would have wholeheartedly agreed with Babbitt's contention that the romantic imagination is one of the "perversions" which must be "unmasked."

Liberal democracy threatened.

While Twain does not philosophically examine the subject of romanticism, Babbitt has written extensively in this area. Babbitt's objections to many common forms of romanticism derive from his view of man, a "classical" view which he regards as generally Aristotelian. He conceives of man's inner life as essentially a struggle between a lower and higher will; the higher will serves as an "inner check" on certain undesirable impulses of the lower will. While this higher will has a 'universal' quality, it must also be individually developed if it is to be successful in its task; the individual must find an ethical center with the aid of the imagination and sound models. Romantic literature, according to Babbitt, rejects "decorum" and, in doing so, fails to offer the reader sound models and standards, while "decorum is for the classicist the grand master-piece to observe because it is only thus he can show that he has a genuine centre set above his own ego." [5] Romanticism, in fact, not only fails to recognize t he need to check the impulses of the lower will but, instead, exalts those expansive impulses. This unanchored romantic imagination is a danger to liberal democracy because "no amount of devotion to society and its supposed interests can take the place of this inner obeisance of the spirit to standards." [6] If liberal democracy is to survive, the moral imagination, which Babbitt associates with Burke and with classical (but not most neo-classical) art and literature, must prevail over the expansive Rousseauesque imagination which Babbitt associates with romanticism. According to Babbitt,

One may ... regard the battle that has been in progress in the field of political thought since the end of the eighteenth century as being in its most significant phase a battle between the spirit of Burke and that of Rousseau. And this opposition between Burke and Rousseau will itself be found to turn, in the last analysis, on the opposition between two different types of imagination. [7]

Unreal realism.

A study of Twain provides an excellent opportunity to develop an understanding of the nature and effects of the Rousseauesque romantic imagination identified by Babbitt. This article will both explore Twain's critical portrayal of romanticism and uncover the romantic, Rousseauesque origins of his own realism. While Twain offers valuable insight into romantic influences on human behavior, it will be shown that he nevertheless fails to possess the kind of classical or moral imagination which characterizes the "spirit of Burke" and that an uncritical reading of Twain's literature can lead the reader to a moral and philosophical dead end. In addition to offering insight into the role romanticism can play in politics, the study of Twain is important because of the likelihood that he has influenced, and continues to influence, American politics and society through the role that literature plays in shaping the imagination.

Before turning to Twain's literature it is important to make an observation about the man himself. In 1920 biographer Van Wyck Brooks remarked that "to those who are interested in American life and letters there has been no question of greater significance, during the last few years, than the pessimism of Mark Twain . . . his oft-expressed belief that man is the meanest of the animals and life a tragic mistake." [8] The "pessimistic cynicism" which Twain increasingly exhibited during his life has always been a problem for his biographers. Some have attributed it to personal misfortunes regarding family and finances, but, as Brooks points out, Twain experienced no more than his fair share of such troubles, and in general could be said to have led an enviable life. Moreover, despite his cynicism, Twain's personality is typically viewed as upbeat, and he described himself as a basically happy person; he certainly did not appear to suffer from anything like clinical depression. Brooks's explanation for the emerg ence of Twain's pessimism and misanthropy is that Twain was a frustrated artist who yearned to produce timeless, serious works of literature but ended up as a mere humorist, storyteller, businessman, and celebrity. Brooks also attempts a psychological evaluation of Twain and argues that he suffered from a kind of "arrested development." Brooks's approach to Twain is controversial, and ultimately it is not much more satisfying or convincing than more conventional views. Beyond this basic observation, this study will not attempt to analyze Twain's life or determine the relative accuracy of the various explanations offered by biographers for his cynicism and pessimism. This article will, however, argue that, regardless of whether Twain's pessimism can be viewed as psychological or circumstantial, it is also unquestionably philosophical in nature. By utilizing a 'Babbittian' approach it will be demonstrated that Twain's pessimistic misanthropy is intimately related to his particular brand of realism and to his re lative success or failure in producing the kind of literature that helps develop the moral imagination and move one toward truth.

Tom and Huck: The Dynamics of the Romantic Imagination

The contrast between the characters of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn is used by Twain to illustrate the romantic imagination. Tom has led a quintessential middle-class American existence. He attends school and church, is comfortable materially, and has an unexciting but stable, and certainly bearable, home life with his Aunt Polly. In contrast, Huck's life, though sometimes viewed as happy-go-lucky, has been by objective standards a nightmare. He has been raised in complete poverty by a worthless and shiftless father who is rarely present and often drunk, who sometimes treats Huck cruelly and has failed to have him educated, and who demonstrates a wide range of bad personality traits. When Huckleberry Finn opens Huck's situation has recently changed; he has been adopted by the Widow...