Probable cause and reasonable suspicion: arrests, seizures, stops and frisks

• Author: Deja Vishny
• Pages: 245-342

PROBABLE CAUSE,

REASONABLE SUSPICION

5-1

CHAPTER 5

PROBABLE CAUSE AND REASONABLE

SUSPICION: ARRESTS, SEIZURES,

STOPS AND FRISKS

“… no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause”

—The Fourth Amendment

I. PROBABLE CAUSE

A. Probable Cause to Arrest

1. Governing Principles

§5:01 Gates Standard: Fair Probability Determined By Totality of Circumstances

§5:02 Older Rule: Aguilar/Spinelli

§5:03 Warrantless Arrests

§5:04 Remedy for Unlawful Arrest

§5:04.1 Arrests Across Jurisdictional Lines

2. Case Examples

§5:05 Probable Cause Found

§5:06 Probable Cause Not Found

3. Common Fact Scenario: Probable Cause to Arrest Suspected Drug Dealer

§5:07 Sample Cross-Examination of Arresting Off‌icer

§5:08 Sample Argument

§5:09 Prosecution Claims Off‌icer Training and Experience Provided Probable Cause

§5:10 Sample Cross-Examination: Training and Experience

§5:11 Sample Argument

§5:12 Governing Principles and Practical Resources

[§§5:13-5:14 Reserved]

B. Probable Cause to Search

1. Governing Principles

§5:15 Distinct from Probable Cause to Arrest

§5:16 Case Examples: Probable Cause Found

§5:17 Case Examples: Probable Cause Not Found

2. Probable Cause to Search Incident to Arrest

§5:18 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:19 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:20 Sample Argument

3. Weapons Searches

§5:21 Overview

§5:22 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:23 Sample Cross-Examination

PROBABLE CAUSE,

REASONABLE SUSPICION

Suppressing Criminal Evidence 5-2

§5:24 Sample Argument

[§§5:25-5:29 Reserved]

II. REASONABLE SUSPICION

A. Governing Principles

§5:30 “Reasonable Suspicion” Def‌ined

§5:31 Seizure Def‌ined

§5:32 Use of Force

§5:33 Length of Permissible Detentions in Terry Stops

§5:34 Sample Cases

§5:34.1 Reasonable Suspicion Found

§5:34.2 No Reasonable Suspicion Found

§5:34.3 Observation of Person in Possession of Firearm

B. Common Fact Patterns

1. Re-Encounter on Porch; Police Wrongly Claim Reasonable Suspicion

§5:36 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:37 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:38 Sample Argument

2. Scope of Terry Searches

§5:39 Allowable Pat-Downs

§5:39.1 Sample Cases: Frisk for Weapons Deemed Reasonable

§5:39.2 Sample Cases: Frisk for Weapons Deemed Not Reasonable

§5:40 Frisks, “Furtive Gestures,” and the “Plain Feel” Doctrine

§5:40.1 Furtive Gestures as a Justif‌ication for Stops and Pat Downs

§5:40.2 “Plain Feel” Doctrine

§5:41 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:42 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:42.1 No Observation of Client with Blunt

§5:42.2 Client’s Prior Record

§5:42.3 Claim Client Was Nervous

§5:42.4 No Threatening Conduct by Client

§5:43 Sample Argument

3. Stop of Motor Home on Highway

§5:44 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:45 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:45.1 Reason for Stop

§5:45.2 Evergreen Wreath

§5:45.3 Traveling Alone

§5:45.4 Nervousness

§5:45.5 Searching Motor Home

§5:46 Sample Argument

C. ShotSpotter and Reasonable Suspicion

§5:47 Overview of Technology and Challenges to Reliability

§5:48 Challenges re: Reasonable Suspicion to Stop

§5:49 In Practice: Challenging ShotSpotter Stops

D. Mistake and Reasonable Suspicion

§5:50 Governing Principles

§5:51 Sample Fact Scenario

§5:52 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:53 Sample Argument

[§§5:54-5:61 Reserved]

E. Proximity to Person Suspected of Committing a Crime

§5:62 Governing Principles

§5:63 Sample Fact Pattern

PROBABLE CAUSE,

REASONABLE SUSPICION

5-3 Probable Cause and Reasonable Suspicion: Arrests, Seizures, Stops and Frisks

§5:64 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:65 Sample Argument

F. Anonymous Informants

G. Litigating Probable Cause vs. Reasonable Suspicion

§5:66 Indicia of Arrest

§5:67 Case Examples: Finding No Probable Cause to Arrest

§5:68 Sample Case Scenario

§5:69 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:70 Sample Argument

[§§5:71-5:74 Reserved]

H. Litigating Reasonable Suspicion after Utah v. Strieff

§5:75 The Strieff Decision

§5:76 Litigation Strategy Post-Strieff

§5:77 Cases to Cite in Challenging Strieff Searches

§5:78 Scenarios in which Defendant Might Prevail, Notwithstanding Strieff

§5:79 Sample Case Scenario

§5:80 Sample Cross-Examination

§5:81 Sample Argument

[§§5:82-5:84 Reserved]

I. Race and Reasonable Suspicion

1. The Impact of Race in the Criminal Justice System

§5:85 The Statistics

§5:86 Historical Use of the Law as an Instrument Against African-Americans

§5:87 Racism, Implicit Bias and Police Perception of African-Americans

§5:88 One Black Man’s Perspective

2. Evidence of Racism and Legal Arguments in Support of Suppression

§5:89 Racial Prof‌iling

§5:89.1 Constitutional Arguments (Fourteenth Amendment) for Suppression

§5:89.2 Statutory Arguments for Suppression

§5:90 Code Words for Racially-Based Police Actions

§5:91 Civil Rights Cases

§5:92 Accepted Fourth Amendment Jurisprudence

§5:92.1 Race and Seizures

§5:92.2 Example: Flight, Reasonable Suspicion and Race

§5:92.3 Facts to Elicit in Client Interview

§5:93 Bright Spots in the Case Law

§5:94 Expert Witnesses and Learned Treatises

§5:95 The Government’s Pleadings

3. Litigating Lack of Reasonable Suspicion

§5:96 Pretextual Stop: “High Crime” Area

§5:97 When Police Are Seeking a Suspect for a Particular Crime

§5:98 When Police Are Not Seeking a Specif‌ic Suspect

§5:99 Common Scenario: Stop Based on Race

§5:99.1 Sample Fact Pattern

§5:99.2 Cross-Examination Issues and Strategy

§5:99.3 Sample Cross-Examination

IV. FORMS

Form 5-1 Motion to Suppress – No Probable Cause to Arrest

Form 5-2 Motion to Suppress – Unlawful Pat Down

Form 5-3 Motion to Suppress – No Reasonable Suspicion for Stop or Pat Down

Form 5-4 ACLU (New Jersey) Amicus Brief re: Reasonable Suspicion, Race, Implicit Bias

Form 5-5 ACLU (New Jersey) Amicus Brief re: Reasonable Suspicion, “High Crime” Area,

“Reasonable Person” Standard