Prison Nurseries: A Way to Reduce Recidivism

• Published date: 01 December 2018
• DOI: 10.1177/0032885518812694
• Date: 01 December 2018
• Subject Matter: Articles

812694TPJXXX10.1177/0032885518812694The Prison JournalCarlson
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Article
The Prison Journal
2018, Vol. 98(6) 760 –775
Prison Nurseries:
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https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885518812694
DOI: 10.1177/0032885518812694
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Recidivism
Joseph R. Carlson1
Abstract
There have been eight U.S. states that have implemented prison nurseries
in women’s correctional facilities. This article examines the second oldest
U.S. prison nursery program located in the Nebraska Correctional Center
for Women. Using data from the program spanning the years 1994-2014,
three main criteria were utilized as key performance indicators to evaluate
success—recidivism within 3 years of initial offense, percentage of women
returning to prison custody over the 20-year period, and program cost
savings. Major findings related to women who participated in the nursery
program include a 28% reduction in recidivism and a 39% reduction in
women returning to prison custody. Overall, the program achieved cost
savings of more than US$6 million for the period 1994 to 2012.
Keywords
prison nursery programs, recidivism, cost savings
Introduction
Housing babies in prison is not a new phenomenon. Many Western European,
Asian, and South American countries allow women to keep their newborn
infants with them in prison. According to the United Nations, in 1987, out of
1University of Nebraska at Kearney, USA
Corresponding Author:
Joseph R. Carlson, Department of Criminal Justice, University of Nebraska at Kearney,
Founders Hall, 905 West 25th Street, Kearney, NE 68849, USA.
Email: carlsonj@unk.edu

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Carlson
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the 70 nations researched, the United States was one of only four countries
that routinely separated incarcerated mothers from their newborn babies
(Ghose, 2002). The United States is one of a few larger countries that rou-
tinely separates incarcerated mothers from their newborn infants (Caddle,
1998; Quaker United Nations Office, 2005). This was not always the case.
Up through the 1950s, many U.S. states had previously allowed newborns to
remain with their incarcerated mothers. Craig (2009) provides a more com-
plete and detailed history of mother and child prison programs in England
and the United States, noting the theories of rehabilitation that supported
them and the obstacles they faced. In the United States, costs and lack of
need, along with the fact that most infants could be placed with family mem-
bers, were cited as reasons for prison nursery closures (Kauffman, 2001).
However, since the 1950s, the traditional U.S. solution has been to either
divert pregnant offender mothers away from confinement or to have those
that are incarcerated give up the care of the child to relatives, foster care, or
adoption at birth (Pollock-Byrne, 1990).
In contrast, Herzog-Evans (2013) reports that in France, babies are nor-
mally allowed to remain with their incarcerated mothers for 18 months. Yet,
there is still an ongoing debate as to how long these babies should be allowed
to remain with their mothers in prison and under what conditions (Martin,
Lau, & Salmon, 2013). Research in Canada has led to recommendations that
mothers and infants be housed together with 24-hr contact because it is essen-
tial for establishing and maintaining breastfeeding on demand. They also
report on the long-term negative effects of foster care placement regarding
developing babies and young children (Martin et al., 2013).
In general, U.S. women inmates who give birth in prison are separated
from their infants within a few days after birth. The prison nurseries in place
today are designed for nonviolent and short-term inmates who will give
birth while incarcerated, but will generally be released within 18 to 36
months or less after the birth (Carlson, 1998, 2009). Women who have lon-
ger prison sentences or histories of child abuse are ineligible to participate in
prison nursery programs. A study by Grubb and del Carmen (2016) recom-
mends basic procedures for the counseling and medical treatment of all
pregnant women in custody, regardless of whether they are in a nursery pro-
gram or not. They indicate that many state statutes and administrative regu-
lations are inadequate for meeting the needs of pregnant inmates, both
during pregnancy and the postpartum period, according to the guidelines
provided by the National Commission on Correctional Health Care
(NCCHC) and the American Public Health Association (APHA). Two states
that appear to have the most comprehensive coverage for the treatment of
pregnant inmates are California and Pennsylvania (Grubb & del Carmen,

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The Prison Journal 98(6)
2016). Women in nursery programs are usually required to participate in
parenting courses, take care of their own child, and refrain from disruptive
behavior that would result in misconduct reports. In some cases, women are
required to take classes to complete their general educational degree (GED)
or to work part-time within the institution both before and after the baby is
born (Carlson, 2009).
Although the overall goals of each state nursery program may differ, most
have similar objectives. A woman is usually considered a successful program
participant if she is able to remain in the program and leave the institution
with her baby (Carlson, 2009). The number of women incarcerated in the
United States has increased by more than 700% since 1980, growing from a
1980 population of 26,378 to 213,722 in 2016 (Carson, 2018). Furthermore,
it is estimated that 6% to 10% of women are pregnant at intake (Pregnancy in
Prison Statistics, 2016).
Contemporary Prison Nursery Programs and
Research Studies
As of January 2016, eight states (Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, New York,
Ohio, Washington, and West Virginia) had operational prison nursery pro-
grams that allowed incarcerated mothers to keep their babies for 12 to 36
months. South Dakota allows the child to remain 30 days (Campbell &
Carlson, 2012; Carlson, 2001; Radosh, 2002; Stern, 2004; Villanueva, From,
& Lemer, 2009, Yager, 2015). Wyoming’s nursery program in their Lusk
Wyoming Women’s facility has been approved by their state legislature and
facilities built, however they have not yet implemented a full program due to
lack of correctional staff.
The Nebraska Correctional Center for Women (NCCW) is Nebraska’s
only female inmate confinement facility. NCCW has a combination of maxi-
mum, medium, and minimum custody inmates, opening in 1920 with a
design capacity of 139 inmates (Carlson, 1998; also see Table 1). The prison
nursery has the capacity to house 15 women and their babies. Nebraska, like
other states, has had a dramatic increase in incarcerated women, from 64 in
1982 to 194 in November of 1999 (Carlson, 2001). As of June 2017, NCCW,
with a capacity of 275 beds, had an average of 345 prisoners (ACLU-
Nebraska, 2017).
In 1994, Nebraska’s Department of Correctional Services was awarded a
grant from the National Institute of Corrections to supplement Nebraska
State funds in establishing a nursery program (Carlson, 1998). In November
1994, the prison nursery program was established in the NCCW, designed to
meet the needs of women inmates serving short sentences who gave birth
during their confinement (Clarke, 1993, Yager, 2015).

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Carlson
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Table 1. The Nebraska Correctional Center for Women at York, Nebraska
(Nebraska Department of Correctional Services, 2014).
Capacity was 319 inmates or 116% as of August 31, 2015
17 buildings on 27 acres
Average inmate population of 328.08
Average cost per inmate US$39,875
Average staff: 126.5
Custody levels: Maximum, medium, minimum
American Correctional Association accredited since 1981
Average age: 33.75 of 394 inmates
73.9% were first time offenders
Average minimum sentence was 30.89 months, the maximum sentence was 60.25
months
Race
White: 65.2%
Black: 16.5%
Hispanic: 9.4%
Native American: 6.6%
Drugs: 38.5%, theft: 20.8%, fraud: 9.0%, burglary: 3.9%
Three-year recidivism rate (FY 2012) all women: 24.3% out of 350 women
New York State has the longest running prison nursery program, in opera-
tion since 1902 (Carlson, 2009). Located in the State Correctional Institution
at Bedford Hills, the nursery is run entirely by the State Department of
...