Predictors of Aggression Among Sample-Specific Young Adult Offenders: Continuation of Violent Behavior Within South African Correctional Centers

Published date01 March 2022
AuthorJacques Jordaan,Anni Hesselink
Date01 March 2022
DOI10.1177/1057567721998431
Subject MatterOriginal Articles
Predictors of Aggression Among
Sample-Specific Young Adult
Offenders: Continuation
of Violent Behavior Within
South African Correctional
Centers
Jacques Jordaan
1
and Anni Hesselink
2
Abstract
Offenders in South Africa face dehumanizing conditions in overcrowded correctional centers known
for constant violence and corruption. These offenders need to cope and adjust to life within a
correctional center. However, the majority of young adult male offenders use aggression to adjust to
the correctional environment. It is, therefore, essential to identify which predictor variables predict
aggression the best among incarcerated young adult male offenders. This study focused on 243
young adult male maximum-security offenders sampled through convenience sampling. Hierarchical
multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate which variable(s) or set(s) of variables
explain a significant percentage of the variance of aggression. The results indicated that problem-
solving, seeking social support, and avoidance, as a set of predictors, significantly predicted physical
aggression, anger, and hostility. These findings seem to suggest that to decrease physical aggression,
anger, and hostility among young adult offenders, it would be advisable to implement interventions
that would (i) increase their problem-solving skills, (ii) improve their social support, and (iii) teach
them to refrain from making use of avoidance as a coping strategy.
Keywords
aggression, coping, decision making, social learning, young adult male offenders, predictors
Background
South Africa is a country riddled with crime, especially violent, aggressive types of crime (Faull,
2017; Fourie, 2018; Thobane & Prinsloo, 2018; Weierstall et al., 2013). However, a concern is that
1
Department of Psychology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
2
Department of Criminology and Security Science, School of Criminal Justice, College of Law, University of South Africa,
Pretoria, South Africa
Corresponding Author:
Jacques Jordaan, Department of Psychology, University of the Free State, 205 Nelson Mandela Drive, Park West, Bloem-
fontein 9301, South Africa.
Email: jordaanj1@ufs.ac.za
International CriminalJustice Review
ª2021 Georgia State University
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DOI: 10.1177/1057567721998431
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Original Article
violent crimes nowadays are more committed by younger individuals (Hanson, 2018). Subsequently,
these young adult offenders are housed in correctional environments plagued with unique chal-
lenges, stresses, frustrations, and deprivations (Weiten et al., 2018). Within these perplexing correc-
tional environments, young adult offenders face daunting challenges such as overcrowding,
corruption, bullying, sexual victimization, forced sex, gang activity, offender-on-offender violence,
offender-on-staff violence, exploitation, suicide, and even murder (De Viggiani, 2007; Gear, 2007a,
2007b, 2008, 2010; Hesselink-Louw, 2004; Lahm, 2008, 2009; Morash et al., 2010; Perez et al.,
2009; Sarchiapone et al., 2009). Young adult male offenders are particularly inclined to experience
aggression, violence, and assault within the correctional environment, but are even more inclined to
cope with daily challenges in correctional environments by using aggression themselves (Casey
et al., 2016; Chahal et al., 2016; DeVeaux, 2013; McGuire, 2018; Moore et al., 2018; Reid &
Listwan, 2018; Steiner et al., 2014; Tomar, 2013; Valentine et al., 2015), as they tend to be devel-
opmentally unprepared to adjust to the challenges of the correctional environment (Scott & Stein-
berg, 2008; Valentine et al., 2015). Reid and Listwan (2018) reiterated the importance of research on
aggression and violence within correctional environments, as aggression and violence within the
correctional environment lead to severe consequences such as loss of life, personal injury, fear,
increased security, longer sentences, increased levels of recidivism, reduced access to programs, and
sexual victimization (Reid & Listwan, 2018; Ricciardelli, 2014a, 2014b; Rocheleau, 2015; Trulson
et al., 2010).
Incarceration in South Africa
South Africa has 235 active correctional centers that accommodate an estimated 162,875 incar-
cerated offenders with approved bed space for only 118,723 offenders (Department of Correctional
Services, 2019). Correctional centers in South Africa fall into three categories: minimum-security,
medium-security, and maximum-security centers (Neser, 1993). Also, two types of maximum-
security correctional centers exist in South Africa, namely (i) government-oper ated maximum-
security correctional centers and (ii) private maximum-security correctional centers. In this regard,
the South African government contracted two private companies to render correctional services and
to manage these correctional centers on their (the government) behalf (Du Preez & Luyt, 2006;
Hesselink-Louw, 2004; Matshaba, 2007; Seiter, 2008). Thus, two private correctional centers cur-
rently operate in South Africa (Du Preez & Luyt, 2006; Hesselink-Louw, 2004; Matshaba, 2007),
and they function differently with regard to different operational structures, housing facilities, staff–
inmate ratio, management styles, and rehabilitation efforts in relation to government-operated
maximum-security centers. However, the private maximum-security correctional centers have no
authorization in deciding which (types of offenders) and where (in which correctional centers in
South Africa) incarcerated offenders are detained. The private correctional centers have no input or
power regarding which incarcerated offenders (i.e., some of the most violent, aggressive, and
unmanageable offenders and notorious gangsters) they receive and house in their correctional
environment (Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998).
Social Learning and Aggression
The social learning theory has been used in previous studies (Siegel, 2016) to understand and
explain nondeviant and deviant behavior. Akers (1998) stated that individuals are more inclined to
engage in criminal and deviant behavior (i.e., violence, aggression) when they engage and associate
with deviant and violent others (i.e., other violent and aggressive inmates and gang members) that
they observed and learned from. This has been referred to as differential association (Akers &
Sellers, 2004; Siegel, 2016). In explaining the relationship between aggression and violence and
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Jordaan and Hesselink

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