Pervasive Uncertainty under Threat: Mental Health Disorders and Experiences of Uncertainty for Correctional Workers

• DOI: 10.1177/00938548211050112
• Published date: 01 July 2022
• Date: 01 July 2022
• Subject Matter: Articles

CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR, 2022, Vol. 49, No. 7, July 2022, 991 –1009.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548211050112

Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions

© 2021 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology

991

PERVASIVE UNCERTAINTY UNDER THREAT

Mental Health Disorders and Experiences of

Uncertainty for Correctional Workers

ROSEMARY RICCIARDELLI

Memorial University of Newfoundland

MEGHAN MITCHELL

University of Central Florida

TAMARA TAILLIEU

University of Manitoba

ANDREANNE ANGEHRN

University of Regina

TRACIE AFIFI

University of Manitoba

R. NICHOLAS CARLETON

University of Regina

Exposure to potentially psychologically traumatic events for correctional workers is high. However, the mechanisms driv-

ing the high prevalence are relatively unexplained. Using data from a cross-sectional, online survey of correctional service

workers (n = 845) in Ontario, Canada, collected in 2017–2018, we assess the prevalence of mental disorders with a spe-

cific focus on uncertainty in the workplace and between correctional roles. We find that correctional officers, institutional

governance, and probation/parole officers appear most at risk of mental disorders (prevalence of any mental disorder was

56.9%, 60.3%, and 59.2%, respectively). We argue slightly lower prevalence among institutional wellness, training, and

administrative staff may result in part from their more predictable work environment, where they have more control. The

results reaffirm a need for evidence-based proactive mental health activities, knowledge translation, and treatment and a

need to explore how authority without control (i.e., unpredictability at work) can inform employee mental health.

Keywords: correctional workers; intolerance of uncertainty/vulnerabilities; mental health; well-being; control

AUTHORS’ NOTE: Special thanks for recruitment support and the review provided by the Ontario Ministry

of the Solicitor General and the Ontario Pubic Service Employees Union. The author(s) disclosed receipt of the

following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: R. Nicholas

Carleton’s research is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) through a New

Investigator Award (FRN: 13666). Tracie O. Afifi’s research is supported by a Tier I Canada Research Chair.

This research was also funded in part by a CIHR Catalyst Grant (FRN: 16234). Correspondence concerning

this article should be addressed to Rosemary Ricciardelli, Professor of Sociology and Criminology, Department

of Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 230 Elizabeth

Avenue, AA 4066, St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada A1E 4L6; e-mail: rricciardell@mun.ca.

1050112CJBXXX10.1177/00938548211050112Criminal Justice and BehaviorRicciardelli et al. / Mental Health, Uncertainty, and Correctional Workers

research-article2021

992 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR

INTRODUCTION

Carleton and colleagues (2018) reported the prevalence of mental disorders for Canadian

correctional workers to be as high as 55%, which is much greater than the approximately

10% prevalence found among the general Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 2012).

Perhaps unsurprising, given correctional work is associated with occupational stressors

(Boudoukha et al., 2013; Boyd, 2011; Lambert et al., 2009; Lambert & Paoline, 2010) and

situations laced with unpredictability and therein uncertainty which has been linked to men-

tal disorders (Carleton, 2016). All correctional workers have diverse degrees of authority

and control in their workspace, and their control is often directly informed by the compli-

ance of those in custody and the unpredictable nature of humanity (Rhodes, 2004; Sykes,

1958). Unpredictability can drive uncertainty. Experiencing uncertainty can lead to a weak-

ened perception of safety, which in turn is associated with increased mental disorder symp-

toms (Fullerton et al., 2006; Grupe & Nitschke, 2013).

Uncertainty regarding one’s safety may be particularly detrimental for correctional

employees who are on high alert to operational stressors (Ricciardelli & Power, 2020).

Correctional worker roles vary substantially, but correctional workers remain embedded in

an unpredictable and uncertain workspace replete with direct (e.g., in-person) and indirect

(e.g., reading case files) Potentially Psychologically Traumatic Event (PPTE) exposures

(Carleton, Afifi, et al., 2019; Carleton et al., 2018). Exposures to PPTE vary in severity and

type (e.g., violence, physical assaults, death by suicide, and harassment) (Carleton, Afifi,

et al., 2019; Isenhardt & Hostettler, 2016; Ricciardelli, 2019) and have been linked to

increased risk of mental disorders including major depressive disorder (MDD), posttrau-

matic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder (PD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),

social anxiety disorder (SAD), and alcohol use disorder (AUD) for correctional workers

(Carleton et al., 2018; Ricciardelli, Carleton, Groll, & Cramm, 2018; Ricciardelli, Carleton,

Mooney, & Cramm, 2018).

Correctional workers can reasonably expect PPTE exposures in diverse locations, like

populations of people who are incarcerated and work environments. For instance, in Canadian

federal prisons, in 2014, Correctional Services Canada (CSC) surveyed 122 correctional

officers and found they experience PPTE in the form of excessive violence with 15% of

respondents reported being physically assaulted more than 3 times; 17% reported responding

to suicide attempts more than 3 times; 20% reported responding to a riot more than 3 times;

17% reported witnessing murder more than 3 times; and 50% reported witnessing a physical

assault more than 3 times. Often these situations are laced with low control and uncertainty.

Community correctional workers, such as probation officers, may be exposed to both direct

(e.g., witnessing) and indirect (e.g., reading about) PPTE, with varying levels of control.

Rhineberger-Dunn et al. (2016) found that secondary trauma was more likely to be reported

by probation/parole officers in comparison with residential officers in the United States (see

also: Rhineberger-Dunn & Mack, 2019). The coupling of persistent uncertainty with threat

potential increases the risk of mental health disorders (Carleton, 2016).

In this study, we recognize the negative effects of workplace violence (Baines et al.,

2011), bullying and harassment (Mayhew & Chappell, 2007), work-related stress

(Bourbonnais et al., 2007; Mayhew & Chappell, 2007), and nonstandard (e.g., shift work)

and precarious employment—all informing uncertainty—on the physical and mental health

of correctional workers. With this in mind, we investigate the relationship between uncer-

tainty and mental disorder symptoms for correctional employees working in different