Perpetrators at First, Victims at Last: Exploring the Consequences of Stigmatization on Ex-Convicts’ Mental Well-Being

• Author: Portia Darkwa Baffour,Nonie Harris,Frank Darkwa Baffour,Mark David Chong,Abraham P. Francis
• DOI: 10.1177/0734016820960785
• Date: 01 September 2021
• Published date: 01 September 2021
• Subject Matter: Articles

Article

Perpetrators at First, Victims

at Last: Exploring the

Consequences of Stigmatization

on Ex-Convicts’ Mental

Well-Being

Frank Darkwa Baffour

1

, Abraham P. Francis

1

, Mark David Chong

1

,

Nonie Harris

1

, and Portia Darkwa Baffour

2

Abstract

The article investigates ex-convicts’ experiences of stigmatization and its effect on their well-being in

selected prisons in Ghana. Qualitative data were collected from 20 male inmates who, after residing

for a time in the community, were thereafter reincarcerated. Findings indicate that these men were

subjected to stigmatization and degrading treatment in the community, which limited their chances

of securing lawful employment, establishing romantic relationships, and even maintaining platonic

and family ties. As a result, this negatively impacted upon their mental well-being, leading some to

substance abuse and suicide ideation. The article thereafter discusses policy and future research

implications that arise from these findings.

Keywords

mental well-being, stigmatization, ex-convicts, substance use, suicide ideation

The stigmatization perpetrated against formerly incarcerated people is a global social justice

problem (Decker et al., 2015; Haight et al., 2016; McGinley & Jones, 2018; Saunders, 2018;

Skinner-Osei & Levenson, 2018; Turney et al., 2013) and the situation in most sub-Saharan

African countries is no exception. Scholars have attributed this region’s intolerance of

ex-convicts to the fact that their current prison systems were imposed on them by colonial

administrators of years long past. During colonial times, these prisons were portrayed to the

populace as a place for housing criminals who were not fit to live in the midst of “good and

law-abiding” people (Ame, 2018; Onyango, 2013; Tankebe, 2013) . This impression has sadly

1

College of Arts, Society and Education, James Cook University, Douglas-Townsville, Queensland, Australia

2

North Queensland Combined Women Services, Townsville, Queensland, Australia

Corresponding Author:

Frank Darkwa Baffour, Building 4, Room 134, 1 James Cook Drive, Douglas-Townsville, Queensland 4814, Australia.

Emails: frank.baffour@jcu.edu.au; frank.baffour@my.jcu.edu.au

Criminal Justice Review

2021, Vol. 46(3) 304-325

ª2020 Georgia State University

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DOI: 10.1177/0734016820960785

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remained, and even after 5 decades of independence, a majority of these countrie s have barely

made any reforms to the punitive colonial systems that they were saddled with because their

communities continue to hold on to such traditional myths and perceptions about the prison

(Tankebe, 2013). It is therefore not a coincidence that stigmatization perpetrated against

ex-convicts by “good and law-abiding” people is entrenched in most sub-Saharan African coun-

tries—Ghana included (Dako-Gyeke & Baffour, 2016).

Stigmatization is a culturally constructed attribute that devalues a person’s original identity and

leaves an indelible mark on them (Goffman, 1963; Yang et al., 2007). As explained by Phillips et al.

(2012), Goffman’s (1963) authoritative definition made it very clear that stigma was a social

attribute that was “discrediting for an individual or group” and was

...typically regarded as having a negative impact on self-concept and identity formation, resulting in

degrees of social exclusion that may range from difficulty engaging in normal social interaction because

of secrecy or shame to a societal discrediting of the stigmatised individual or group of

individuals ...(p. 681)

Perhaps more importantly for the present study, Phillips et al. (2012) also pointed out how Link

and Phelan (2001) expanded upon Goffman’s definition to include in the conceptualization of

stigma, “ ...the co-occurrence of labelling, stereotyping, separating, status loss and discrimination”

(Phillips et al., 2012, p. 681). Furthermore, Moore et al. (2016) highlighted that “[p]sychological

research shows that ...responses to stigma can interfere with functioning, and lead to maladaptive

behaviours, poor mental health [emphasis added], and difficultyparticipating inthe community...”

(p. 196).

A person who has been stigmatized assumes a new social identity that is discrediting of their self-

worth and reinforces prejudices against them. This new master status (Lofland, 1969), for example,

“criminal,” “convict or ex-convict,” “pr isoner,” “inmate or ex-inmate,” and “thi ef,” potentially

condemns that person to lifelong discrimination, ostracization, injustice, and disempowerment, and

often they will be seen as useless in the eyes of community members (Blandisi et al., 2015). In most

of these sub-Saharan African countries, Ghana included, it is perceived that formally incarcerated

people are incorrigible, resistant to change, a bad influe nce, dangerous, lifelong criminals, and

callous (Dako-Gyeke & Baffour, 2016). Such stereotypes create barriers between those stigmatized

and the rest of the community (Bullock & Garland, 2018). For example, there is a popular Ghanaian

adage that goes: “There is always a handful of blood in the tsetse fly’s head and if the animal will not

bite you it will not show the teeth” (translated from Asante Twi to the English language). This and

other similar proverbs are in essence, deeply held cultural stereotyping, as they instill in community

members the myth that people with prior criminal records will forever be criminals and that a

complete transformation of an ex-convict is highly unlikely or improbable. This type of mispercep-

tion will also greatly impact such a community’s understanding and acceptance of prison rehabili-

tative programs.

It should likewise be noted that incarceration, in and of itself, inflicts significant negative

consequences on ex-convicts’ overall well-being (Ali et al., 2018; Schnittker & John, 2007), and

when coupled with the stigmatization that they face within the community, an exacerbation of their

psychological problems should be expected (Van Olphen et al., 2009). Yet, in most sub-Saharan

African countries, stigmatization directed toward ex-convicts is common and, in fact, is socially

approved. For example, in South Africa, previously incarcerated individuals are perceived to be a

bad influence, and there is a corresponding belief that they should be ostracized so as to prevent

children and other community members from modeling their behaviors (Chanakira & Chikadzi,

2017). In Ghanaian communities, ex-convicts are identified as “thieves” and “criminals,” irrespec-

tive of the actual charges for which they were imprisoned (Dako-Gyeke & Baffour, 2016).

Baffour et al. 305